[81] John Field, b. Dublin, 1782; d. Moscow, 1837; pianist and composer; was a pupil of Clementi, whom he followed to Paris and later to St. Petersburg, where he became noted as a teacher. Afterwards he gave concerts successfully in London, as well as in Belgium, France, and Italy. His 20 ‘Nocturnes’ for pianoforte are the basis of his fame. Being the first to use the name, he may be considered to have established the type. His other compositions include concertos, sonatas, etc., and some chamber music. [82] Johann Nepomuk Hummel (1778-1837). Sec Vol. XI. [83] Johann Baptist Cramer (1771-1858). See Vol. XI. [84] Born, Frankfort, 1811; died, Cologne, 1885; was a man of many parts, brilliant pianist and conductor, composer of fine sensibility and mastery of form, and a talented critic and author; cosmopolite and friend of many distinguished musicians, from Cherubini to Berlioz, and especially of Mendelssohn. He left operas, symphonies, oratorios, chamber music, etc., and theoretical works. His smaller works--piano pieces and songs--are still popular. [85] Born, Sheffield, England, 1816; died, London, 1875. See Vol. XI. [86] Born in Altona, near Hamburg, 1824; a highly educated musician, distinguished as pianist, conductor, composer, pedagogue, and critic. As conductor of the Gewandhaus Orchestra and as professor of piano and composition at the Leipzig Conservatory he exerted a long and powerful influence. As composer he followed the school of Mendelssohn and Schumann, was very prolific and distinguished by brilliant musicianship and ingenious if not highly original imagination. Besides operas, _singspiele_ cantatas, symphonies, etc., he published excellent chamber music and many piano works. [87] See Vol. III. Chap. I. CHAPTER VII SONG LITERATURE OF THE ROMANTIC PERIOD Lyric poetry and song--The song before Schubert--Franz Schubert; Carl Löwe--Robert Schumann; Robert Franz; Mendelssohn and Chopin; Franz Liszt as song writer. Song in the modern sense (the German word _Lied_ expresses it) is peculiarly a phenomenon of the nineteenth century. In the preceding centuries it can hardly be said to have claimed the attention of composers. Vocal solos of many sorts there had, of course, been; but they were of one or another formal type and are sharply to be contrasted with the song of Schubert, Schumann, and Franz. If a prophet and theorist of the year 1800, foreknowing what was to be the spirit of the romantic age, had sketched out an ideal art form for the perfect expression of that spirit he would surely have hit upon the song. The fact that song was not composed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries proves how predominantly formal and how little expressive in purpose the music of that time was.