And the polyphonic art began to dominate secular music. In place of the fluent melody of the Minnesinger came the part-song and madrigal. This was built on the same principles as the sacred mass, but its character was naturally lighter and more lively in movement. The part-song was the ‘catch’ of Shakespeare’s time and its popularity is shown by the frequent reference to it in Shakespeare’s plays. In ‘Twelfth Night’ Sir Andrew, Sir Toby, and the fool commence a catch (doubtless known to the audience): ‘Hold thy Peace, Thou Knave,’ Sir Andrew expostulating, ‘How can I begin if I hold my peace?’ The madrigals were not always of so sportive a character. Sometimes they were love-songs or songs of nature, showing keen poetic feeling. Often they were masterpieces of polyphony and canon. But though much learning went into their construction, their spirit was that of the popular song. The most interesting of early part-songs is one known as ‘Sumer is icumen in,’ a Northumbrian canon for six voices, which has been proved to have been composed not later than 1228. It is a delightfully melodious piece, written in fairly good harmony, in the major mode, typical of the freedom and gracefulness of popular music of the time in contrast to the rigor of the ecclesiastical works. From the early part of the thirteenth century to the middle of the seventeenth madrigals were written and were the principal form of secular vocal music. During this time, of course, folk-song continued. But it was, as it had been several centuries earlier, but a poor relation of music, dwelling among the despised and rejected of men. It was doubtless during this period that the earlier specimens of the folk-songs now preserved to us assumed something like their present form. But so far as outward history is concerned secular song is contained in the madrigal (which is not ‘song’ in our sense), and in the mastersong of Germany, which was almost wholly lacking in inspiration. When the homophonic song once more awoke to its place, the world had experienced the profound changes of the Renaissance and the Reformation. Secular life had outstripped the religious in variety and intellectual interest. The church was powerful still, but it was no longer the centre of gravity for all men’s activity. So song found itself drawn into the vortex and forced to serve men’s pleasures and vanities in innumerable forms. What these forms were and how they tended to the Song proper we shall see in the next chapter. CHAPTER VII THE CLASSIC SONG AND THE ARIA Italy and the monodic style--Song in the seventeenth century; Germany; France--Song in England--The aria--German song in the eighteenth century; French song in the eighteenth century; forerunners of Schubert. I