Primitive Binding of Books.--Bookbinding among the Romans.--Bookbinding with Goldsmith’s Work from the Fifth Century.--Chained Books.--Corporation of _Lieurs_, or Bookbinders.--Books bound in Wood, with Metal Corners and Clasps.--First Bindings in Leather, honeycombed (_waffled_?) and gilt.--Description of some celebrated Bindings of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.--Sources of Modern Bookbinding.--John Grollier.--President De Thou.--Kings and Queens of France Bibliomaniacs.--Superiority of Bookbinding in France. As soon as the ancients had made square books, more convenient to read than the rolls, binding--that is to say, the art of reuniting the leaves stitched or stuck (_ligati_) into a movable back, between two square pieces of wood, ivory, metal, or leather--bookbinding was invented. This primitive binding, which had no other object than that of preserving the books, no other merit than than of solidity, was not long ere it became associated with ornament, and thus put itself in relation with the luxury of Greek and Roman civilisation. Not contented with placing on each side of the volume a little tablet of cedar-wood or of oak, on which was written the title of the book (for books were then laid flat on the shelves of the library), a piece of leather was stretched over the edge to preserve it from dust, if the book was valuable, and the volume was tied up with a strap passed round it many times, and which was subsequently replaced by clasps. In certain instances the volume was enveloped in thick cloth, and even enclosed in a case of wood or leather. Such was the state of bookbinding in ancient times.