5. Lakes in craters of extinct volcanoes, for instance, Lake Avernus. 6. Those caused by subsidence due to the removal of underlying soluble rocks, such as some of the Cheshire Meres. 7. Loop lakes in deserted river courses, of which there are many along the course of the Rhine. 8. Those due to rockfalls, landslips, or lava currents, damming up the course of a river. 9. Those caused by the advance of a glacier across a lateral valley, such as the Mergelen See, or the ancient lake whose margins form the celebrated "Parallel Roads of Glen Roy." As regards the first class we find here and there on the earth's surface districts sprinkled with innumerable shallow lakes of all sizes, down to mere pools. Such, for instance, occur in the district of Le Doubs between the Rhone and the Saone, that of La Sologne near Orleans, in parts of North America, and in Finland. Such lakes are, as a rule, quite shallow. Some geologists, Geikie, for instance, ascribe them to the fact of these regions having been covered by sheets of ice which strewed the land with irregular masses of clay, gravel, and sand, lying on a stratum impervious to water, either of hard rock such as granite or gneiss, or of clay, so that the rain cannot percolate through it, and without sufficient inclination to throw it off. 2. To Ramsay's second class of Lakes belong those formed by moraines. The materials forming moraines being, however, comparatively loose, are easily cut through by streams. There are in Switzerland many cases of valleys crossed by old moraines, but they have generally been long ago worn through by the rivers. 3. Ramsay and Tyndall attribute most of the great Swiss and Italian lakes to the action of glaciers, and regard them as rock basins. It is of course obvious that rivers cannot make basin-shaped hollows surrounded by rock on all sides. The Lake of Geneva, 1230 feet above the sea, is over 1000 feet deep; the Lake of Brienz is 1850 feet above the sea, and 2000 feet deep, so that its bottom is really below the sea level. The Italian Lakes are even more remarkable. The Lake of Como, 700 feet above the sea, is 1929 feet deep. Lago Maggiore, 685 feet above the sea, is no less than 2625 feet deep. If the mind is at first staggered at the magnitude of the scale, we must remember that the ice which is supposed to have scooped out the valley in which the Lake of Geneva now reposes, was once at least 4000 feet thick; while the moraines were also of gigantic magnitude, that of Ivrea, for instance, being no less than 1500 feet above the river, and several miles long.