[Illustration: FIG. 93.--English blind stamped binding, with the arms of Queen Katherine of Arragon.] The question as to whether these stamps are royal or not inevitably occurs to any student, but as with one or two exceptions they carry with them extraneous ornament, such as the sun and moon, and arms of London, I think that any such stamp cannot have been royal, but it is possible enough that when the royal arms alone are found the stamp may have been originally cut for royalty. Such stamps as these are very strong and are not likely to have ever been worn out--indeed, it is curious that instances of unauthorised use of royal stamps is not commoner than it is. One of the most curious of these panel stamps, not armorial, is one which bears upon it the device of John Reynes. It shows a fancy coat-of-arms on which are the emblems of the Passion, with two unicorns as supporters, a royal helmet, above which are scourges, &c., and a crowing cock, and below on a ribbon the words “Arma redemptoris mundi.” One cannot forget here that Dame Juliana Berners, in the Boke of Cote Armour, declares the Christ was a gentleman of coat armour by right of his mother Mary. [Illustration: FIG. 94.--English blind stamped binding, with arms of Christ. Bound by John Reynes, c. 1530.] The English panel stamps, as well as rolls, of the early Tudor period often bear the Tudor badges of double or Tudor rose, the fleur-de-lys, and the portcullis of the De Beauforts. These badges are usually crowned. Panel stamps were cut on latten, a metal alloy resembling brass. The thin engraved plate was fixed on a wooden block by means of two pegs, and the impression was made on the leather either by the use of a hammer or by means of weights, very likely by a combination of both these, methods. After a time the pegs worked loose, and very frequently panel stamps are found in which the impression from these loosened pegs can be seen. [Illustration: FIG. 95.--English blind stamped binding. Pynson, 1499.] Many German calf bindings of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries are beautifully ornamented with cut work. The outlines of the designs are cut with a sharp small knife held slantingly, and afterwards worked into shape with blunted tools. The designs upon these bindings are often very fine, and the workmanship is most skilled and effective. The earliest example I know of is elaborately ornamented on the upper board with a groundwork of floral scrolls, and has in the centre the Austrian coat-of-arms supported on an eagle, which is stained black. On a scroll above the eagle are the words “Fridericus rex, etc., 1451” and below it in a long panel the letters “A E I O U,” standing for the proud motto “Austria est imperare orbi universo.” Along the lower edge is cut the name of the binder, “Petrus Ligator.” [Illustration: FIG. 96.--German cut leather binding, made for the Emperor Frederick of Austria. Dated 1451.]