Of German and Dutch workmanship many metal bindings exist, and they are of varied styles. All these bindings have solid metal backs with hinges along the sides, and usually a sort of cap projecting over the headband. Many of the later examples are not good, but are made of bad metal and coarsely worked in repoussé. The worst of them are probably Dutch work. Some of the earlier German silver bindings are prettily ornamented with niello work, and others have filigree work over gilt metal, and the use of tortoiseshell with silver or gilt mounts is also found of Spanish, German, or Dutch workmanship. I should say that the best guide to determine to which of these countries the work belongs is to take the place of imprint as authoritative. The imprint on a printed book does not by any means always imply that a binding was made there, but in many doubtful cases it is undoubtedly of much value as to mere nationality; the style of the binding itself should always be the first consideration. Some Dutch bindings are made in base metal, gilt, often with open work and engraving. They are neither good to look upon nor pleasant to handle. Italian bindings in metal are rare, and it is only in the case of very small books that it was ever used. The manner of this is usually fine filigree work over a gilt groundwork. There is one example in the Victoria and Albert Museum, which is, however, more likely to be quite an exceptional production than one in any way representing a national type. It is an exquisitely enamelled golden book cover, having on one side the Garden of Eden and on the other the Fountain of Youth; it contains a missal, and is said to have been made for Queen Henrietta Maria. In France a few silver bindings of the sixteenth century with enamels have been made, but they are very rare, and the enamels of the basse taille style, usually badly chipped. I believe some small metal bindings with rough enamels upon them have been made in comparatively modern times in Russia. These all have a strong Byzantine feeling and are clear survivals of the same style that was in vogue in Russia in mediæval times, and was used not only for bindings but also for ikons and triptychs. The work is coarse and unsatisfactory. [Illustration: FIG. 83.--Dutch binding in tortoiseshell and silver.] Tortoiseshell mounted in metal has been largely used for bindings in Holland, Germany, and Spain. The backs are hinged to the sides with long snuff-box hinges, and the shell itself is sometimes beautifully inlaid with silver and mother-of-pearl. Some of these covers are very small, particularly the Dutch ones, and designs are sometimes impressed upon them. Mother-of-pearl has now and then been utilised for binding very small books. The backs and hinges are usually of silver. [Illustration: FIG. 84.--German chained book, fifteenth century.]