| | Mohammedanism by | undermines supremacy of | | | | Aurangzib. | Parliament. Repression of | | | | Expansion of the Mogul | Nonconformity by | | | | Empire over Southern | Parliament. | | | | India. | Louis XIV. attacks Holland, | | | | | with occasional support | | | | | from Charles II. | | | | | ENGLAND: Attack on Romanism.| | |1680 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1680 | | | | Aggressive movement of | | | | | Turkey. | | | | | FRANCE: Louis XIV. revokes | | | | | Edict of Nantes, 1685. | | | | | Constitutionalism | | | | | established in England | | | | | by the revolution of 1688.| | | | | Wars of England and Holland | | | | | against France. | | |1700 | | RUSSIA: Peter the Great. | 1700| |A.D. | | Newton and Leibnitz. |A.D. | +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+ [Sidenote: Settling Down of the Powers] From 1739 to 1763 Europe was again plunged into wars, with an eight years’ interval. The motives of those wars, and of the combinations of states on either side, were complicated; the results were simple. Prussia, under Frederick the Great, emerged as a first-class Power; France lost her North American Colonies to Great Britain; the British East India Company defeated the attempt of the French to establish a paramount influence with the native princes, the Mogul Empire having broken up into a congeries of practically independent satrapies; and the British themselves became established as a territorial Power by the conquest of Bengal. Russia also, organised at the beginning of the century by Peter the Great, had taken her place definitely among the great Powers. During the next twenty years (1763-1783) Poland was absorbed by her neighbours. The British Empire was sundered by the revolt of the older American Colonies, which were established as the United States of America; while Canada remained loyal. By this time the whole of Europe was practically governed by absolute monarchies; but a cataclysm was at hand. France became the scene of a tremendous revolution. Crown and aristocracy were toppled into the abyss. [Sidenote: Napoleon and the Revolution]