But loaf sugar is the kind most usually produced by the refining processes. The brown sugar is dissolved with hot water, and then filtered through canvas bags, from which it exudes as a clear, transparent, though reddish syrup. The removal of this red tinge is effected by filtering the syrup through a mass of powdered charcoal, and we have then a perfectly transparent colourless liquid. In the evaporation or concentration of the clarified syrup, which forms the next part of the refining process, the boiling is effected (under the admirable system introduced by Mr. Howard) in a vacuum, at a temperature of about 140° Fahrenheit. The sugar pan is a large copper vessel, with arrangements for extracting the air, admitting the syrup, admitting steam pipes, and draining off the sugar when concentrated. In using the pan a quantity of syrup is admitted, and an air pump is set to work to extract all the air from the pan, in order that the contents may boil at a low temperature. The evaporation proceeds, and when completed the evaporated syrup flows out of the pan through a pipe into an open vessel beneath, called the _granulating vessel_, around which steam circulates, and within which the syrup is brought to a partially crystallized state. From the granulators the syrup or sugar is transferred into moulds of a conical form, which were formerly made of coarse pottery, but are now usually of iron. In these moulds the sugar whitens and crystallizes, the remaining uncrystallized syrup flowing out at an opening at the bottom of the moulds. This syrup is reboiled with raw sugar, so as to yield an inferior quality of sugar; and, when all the crystallizable matter has been extracted from it, the remainder is sold as treacle. The loaves of sugar, after a few finishing processes, are ready for sale. THE DYER AND SCOURER. [Illustration: DYERS AT WORK.] The trade of the Dyer may be placed amongst the most ancient of the arts, and the tools that are used in it are so few that they need scarcely any description, since almost all the apparatus required are the various coppers, vats, and other vessels used for boiling the fabrics to be dyed, and immersing them completely in the liquors which have been prepared from the dye stuffs, the proper use of which is the principal secret in the business. With regard to the scouring or cleaning of fabrics, whether made into garments or not, the operation consists in applying detergents, or substances like soap and turpentine, for removing grease and dirt, or other liquids which have a detergent property but will not injure the colours; the use of these, with a _sponge_ and a _hard brush_, is nearly all that is required; the garment sent to be cleaned being stretched on a _frame_ and dried, either in the dyer’s _drying room_, or in some open situation, where they are least likely to be soiled or spotted. [Illustration: Drying Room. Sponge. Hard Brush.]