The Craniata, often termed Vertebrata, form one of the best defined and most easily recognisable divisions of the animal kingdom. As the name implies, they are distinguished from the more primitive Chordata by the formation of a definite "head," as the result of the modification of the anterior portion of the central nervous system to form a complex brain, round which are concentrated the chief organs of special sense. This is combined with the evolution of a skull, which, in addition to providing a "cranium" for the enclosure and protection of the brain, and partial or complete capsules for the sense-organs, is connected behind with a system of bony or cartilaginous visceral arches, which loop round the pharynx between the gill-clefts. Besides supporting the breathing organs (gills) in the lower aquatic Craniata, or existing as embryonic vestiges in the higher lung-breathing forms, these arches usually form the basis of jaws for the mouth. The epidermal portion of the superficial skin is always composed of several layers of cells. The notochord, which is always present in the embryo, and in a few Craniates, both living and extinct, may even be retained in its entirety in the adult, fails to reach {142}the anterior end of the brain. In most Craniates, however, the notochord becomes more or less completely replaced in the adult by the development round it of a series of vertebrae, forming the backbone or vertebral column. Two pairs of limbs, and cartilaginous or bony limb-girdles for their support, are very generally present. The segmentation, or serial repetition of certain organs of the body, which is so marked a feature in the Cephalochordata, is also characteristic of the Craniata. Examples of this may be seen in the division of the lateral longitudinal muscles of the body wall into muscle-segments or myotomes by a series of transverse fibrous septa; in the formation of the vertebral column by a series of successive joints or vertebrae; in a similar serial repetition of the cranial and spinal nerves, the gill-clefts and branchial arches, certain blood-vessels, and the renal tubules. There is sometimes, however, no precise regional or numerical correspondence between the different organs which are successively repeated in this way, and hence it is probable that, in at least some of the organs of the Craniate body, the segmentation has been independently evolved in each case. The pharynx is relatively much shorter than in other Chordata. The gill-clefts are few in number, whether, as in the lower Craniata, they are retained as the functional breathing organs, or are present, as vestiges only, in the embryos of the higher members of the group. In no instance are they subdivided by the growth of "tongue-bars" or "synapticula," nor do they open externally into an atrial or peribranchial cavity. The liver is a massive compound tubular gland, never, in the adult at all events, a simple caecal sac; and usually there is a pancreas and a spleen.