So long as a foreign nation and a formidable commercial rival held the geographical centre, the northern and southern colonies of England were separated, intercommunication was hampered, and international boundary disputes arose. Moreover, New Amsterdam had the best harbor on the coast, and the Hudson river was an easy highway for traffic with the Indians; it was, as well, altogether too convenient for possible raids of French and Indians from the north. For these reasons England was desirous of obtaining possession of the New Netherlands. There were not wanting excuses for interference. Englishmen in Connecticut, on Long Island, and on the Schuylkill had had land disputes with the Dutch, and there had been much bad temper displayed on both sides. Sidenote: England captures New Netherlands. In 1654 Cromwell sent out a fleet to take the country; but peace between England and Holland intervened in time to give to New Netherland a respite of ten years. In 1664 Charles II. revived the claim that Englishmen had discovered the region before the Dutch. In August of that year Colonel Nicolls appeared before New Amsterdam, then a town of fifteen hundred inhabitants, with a fleet of four ships, having on board four hundred and fifty English soldiers and Connecticut volunteers, and demanded its surrender. There was a stone fort and twenty cannon; but the enemy were too strong to be profitably resisted. Despite Stuyvesant's protest, "I would rather be carried to my grave" than yield, the white flag was eagerly run up by the frightened town officers, and Dutch rule in New Amsterdam came to an end. Sidenote: Importance of the conquest. By October every possession of Holland in North America was in the hands of the English, who now held the Atlantic coast from the Savannah to the Kennebec. The achievement of Nicolls had rendered it possible for the American colonies to unite, and thus was of the greatest importance to the political development of the country. Had King Charles been able to foresee the trend of events, he would no doubt have been glad to allow the Dutch to stand as an obstacle to the union of his transatlantic possessions. Sidenote: Introduction of English rule. The Duke of York was made proprietor of the conquered territory, the province and capital being now styled New York; Fort Orange was rechristened Albany. But beyond the change of names, little was done to interrupt the smooth current of life, and Dutch customs in household and trade were retained so far as practicable; while the public offices were impartially shared, and former Dutch officials were consulted. There was one notable act of injustice: all land-grants had to be confirmed by the new governor, Nicolls, and fees were exacted for this service. Under English rule the prosperity of the colony greatly increased. 86. Development of New York (1664-1700). Sidenote: Local government.