The penances inflicted generally consist of various kinds of fasting; but it must be observed that fasting is with Jainas a duty incumbent on all. It is a duty only second to that of not killing. Fasting (_upav[=a]sa_) is also practised by Hind[=u]s and Buddhists, and held to be a most effective means of accumulating religious merit. Orthodox Hind[=u]s fast twice a month, on the eleventh day of each fortnight, as well as on the birthday of Krishna (_Janm[=a]shtam[=i]_), and the night sacred to S´iva (_S´iva-r[=a]tri_). On some fast days fruits may be eaten, but no cooked food of any kind. With Buddhists and Jainas the season of fasting, religious meditation, and recitation of sacred texts, far outdoes our Lenten period. The Buddhists in some parts of the world call their fasting season Wasso (corrupted from the Sanskrit _Upav[=a]sa_). That of the Jainas is called Pajj[=u]san or Pachch[=u]san (for Sanskrit _Paryushana_). The S´vet[=a]mbara Jainas fast for the fifty days preceding the fifth of the month Bh[=a]dra, the Dig-ambaras for the seventy following days. In both cases the Pajj[=u]san corresponds generally to the rainy season or its close. Possibly the practice of fasting during that period may be intended as an expiation for the supposed guilt incurred by the unintentional destruction of damp-engendered insects. In regard to the duty of worshipping images, this also, like the last duty, is incumbent on all. But it is worthy of remark that images were at first only used as memorials or as simple decorations, in places consecrated to pure forms of worship. Idolatry has always been a later innovation. It has never belonged to the original constitution of any religious system. One or two differences between Hind[=u], Buddha, and Jaina images should be noted. Hind[=u] images (excepting that of the ascetic form of S´iva) are often profusely decorated, while Buddha and Jaina idols are always left unadorned, though sometimes cut out of the finest marble, and often having a nimbus[18] round their heads. Twenty-two of the Jina images, as well as the seven Buddhas, are represented with a coarse garment thrown over the left shoulder, the other shoulder being bare. Those of the first and last Jinas (Rishabha and Mah[=a]v[=i]ra) are completely nude; and Jina images, like some of those of the Buddha, are often erect. Moreover, the idols of the Buddha Gautama represent him in four principal attitudes. He is (1) seated in deep contemplation; or (2) is seated while engaged in teaching, with the tip of the forefinger of one hand applied to the fingers of the other hand; or (3) he is a mendicant ascetic in a standing posture; or (4) he is recumbent just before his decease. In the first or contemplative attitude, he is indifferent to everything except intense concentration of thought on the problem of perfect knowledge. According to others, he is supposed to be thinking of nothing, or, if that is impossible, his thoughts are concentrated on