The costæ are channels on the inside of the valve, closed, except in the middle where elliptical foramina, opening into the interior of the valve, give rise through their terminal margins to the two longitudinal lines on each side of the valve. The raphe begins as a groove in the side of the conical central nodule and continues as a cleft at right angles to the plane of the surface of the valve, in which case the raphe forms a single line; if the raphe is inclined to the valve surface, then two lines appear in projection, the upper and lower edges of the cleft. In some forms the surface of the edge of the raphe on one side is folded or grooved for a considerable distance, and the opposite edge is elevated into a ridge or {102}tongue fitting into the groove. In such cases it is possible, in projection, to see the upper or outer edges of the raphe, the lower edges and the edges of the tongue and groove, thus showing four lines; sometimes, when the tongue and groove do not meet, six lines. The so-called inner channel is the part of the raphe on the inside of the tongue, and the so-called exterior channel is the part of the raphe on the outside of the tongue. If, in addition to this formation of the raphe, the plane of cleavage changes toward the terminal nodules, the lines will cross each other and, when two are superimposed, disappear altogether. For the careful examination of the raphe it is necessary to employ large forms, and it is advisable to use nitrate of silver which remains in the raphe, and, as in slides mounted by Mr. F. J. Keeley, shows in a beautiful manner the entire outline of raphe and fissures. The terminal fissures owe their separation to the different directions taken by the two edges of the raphe on each side, one edge bending in a wide curve toward the end of the valve, showing two lines, the upper and lower edges of one side of the raphe when inclined to the plane of the surface, and the other edge of the raphe turning suddenly in an opposite direction and ending abruptly in a curve, giving rise to the appearance, by diffraction, of a punctum. Pl. 40, Figs. 13, 14 and 15. Endochrome consists of two chromatophores lying on the zones. Pinnularia is usually divided into the Majores, or larger, and the Minores, or smaller forms, the latter being further divided according to their striæ. The following classification is chiefly that of Cleve. _Majores._--Valve large, linear with parallel or slightly radiate striæ and broad axial area. _Gracillimæ._--Valve small, striæ parallel or nearly so; axial area very narrow. _Capitatæ._--Valve with capitate or rostrate ends; striæ radiate. _Divergentes._--Striæ strongly radiate. _Brevistriatæ._--Striæ short. _Distantes._--Striæ distant. _Tabellariæ._--Striæ radiate in the middle, strongly convergent at the ends. _Marinæ._--Marine forms. MAJORES PINNULARIA MAJOR (KUETZ.) WM. SM.