THE MILITARY ORIGIN OF ALFRED'S BOROUGHS Keutgen (_Untersuchungen über den Ursprung der Deutschen Stadtverfassung_, 1895) appears to have been the first to notice the military origin of the Old Saxon boroughs; and Professor Maitland saw the applicability of the theory to the boroughs of Alfred and Edward the Elder. (_Domesday Book and Beyond._) The _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, in 894, speaks of "the men whose duty it was to defend the towns"; this proves that Alfred had made some special arrangement for the defence of the towns; and this arrangement must have been something quite apart from the ordinary service of the _fyrd_ or militia, which was only due for a short time. It must have been something permanent, with an adequate economic basis, such as we have in Henry the Fowler's plan. APPENDIX D THE WORDS "CASTRUM" AND "CASTELLUM" If we take the chroniclers of the reign of Charlemagne and his successors in the 9th century, we find the word _castrum_ constantly used for places such as Avignon, Dijon, Macon, Rheims, Chalons, Cologne, Andernach, Bonn, Coblenz, etc., all of which are known to have been Roman _castra_, when there can be no doubt that the _city_ is meant. Take, for instance, the _Annales Mettenses_ (Pertz, i., 326), 737: Karl Martel hears that the Saracens have taken "castrum munitissimum Avinionem" (Avignon); he marches against them, and "_predictam urbem_ obsidione circumdat." But these cities are not only called _castra_, they are also called _castella_. Thus the chronicle ascribed to Hincmar calls Macon both _castrum_ and _castellum_ in the same breath. (_Migne_, 125, 1298.) The fortifications built by Charlemagne against the Saxons are called _castra_, _castella_, and _civitates_. (_Chron. Moissiacense_, Pertz, i., 308. _Ann. Einhardi_, ibid., 196, 204.) The camps of the Northmen, which as we have seen, were of great size, are also called not only _castra_, but _civitates_, _castella_, _munitiones_, _oppida_. (_Annales Fuldenses_, Pertz, i., 397.) The camp built by Charles the Bald at Pistes in 868 is called a _castellum_, though it was evidently an enclosure of great size, as he measured out quarters in it for his nobles, and formed an elaborate scheme for its maintenance. (Hincmar, _Migne_, 125, 1242, 1244.) Coming to the 10th century, the following passage from Flodoard will show the vagueness of the words in common use for fortifications: "Heribertus Ansellum Bosonis subditum, qui prædictum custodiebat _castrum_ (Vitry), cum ipso _castello_ recipit, et Codiacum S. Remigii _municipium_ illi cum alia terra concedit. Nec longum, Bosonis fideles _oppidanorum_ proditione Victoriacum (Vitry) recipiunt, et Mosonum fraude pervadunt. At Heribertus, a quibusdam Mosomensibus evocatus, supervenit insperatus, et entrans _oppidum_, porta latenter a _civibus_ aperta, milites Bosonis, qui ad custodiam loci residebant, ibidem omnes capit." (_Migne_, 135, 297.) Here it is clear that _castrum_, _castellum_,