The Sultan, or _Padishah_, concentrates all powers within his person. He is _Emir el mumenin_, or head of the faithful, and his conduct is guided solely by the prescriptions of the Koran and the traditions of his ancestors. The two most influential persons in the empire, next to him, are the _Sheik-el-Islam_, or Great Mufti, who superintends public worship and the administration of justice, and the _Sadrazam_, or Grand Vizier, who is at the head of the general administration, and is assisted by a council of ten ministers, or _mushirs_. The _Kislar Agasi_, or chief of the black eunuchs, to whom is confided the management of the imperial harem, is likewise one of the great dignitaries of the empire, and frequently enjoys the very highest influence. The legal advisers of the various ministries are known as _mufti_. _Efendi_, _bey_, and _aga_ are honorary titles bestowed upon certain Government officials and persons of consideration. The title of _pasha_, which signifies “grand chief,” is given to certain high civil or military functionaries. This title is symbolized by one, two, or three horse-tails attached to the top of a lance, a usage recalling the time when the nomad Turks roamed over the steppes of Central Asia. The work of the various ministries is done by councils, and there thus exist a council of state, or _shuraï devlet_, councils of accounts, of war, of the navy, of public education, of police, &c. These various councils, in their totality, constitute the _divan_, or government chancery. There is also a supreme court of justice, with sections for civil and criminal cases. The members of these various official bodies are appointed by Government. Each of the subject “nations” is represented on the Council of State by two members, carefully selected by the _Sadrazam_. The vilayet is governed by a _vali_, the sanjak by a _mutesarif_, the kaza by a {153} _kaimakan_, the parish by a _mudir_. Each of these is supposed to act by advice of a council composed of the leading religious and civilian functionaries, Mohammedan and non-Mohammedan. In reality, however, the vali appoints all these councils, and they are popularly known as the “Councils of the Ayes.” The rules laid down by the supreme Government for its own guidance are embodied in the _hatti-sherif_ of Gulhane, promulgated in 1839, and in the _hatti-humayum_ of 1856. These hatts promise equal rights to all the inhabitants of the empire, but have been carried out hitherto only very partially. A “constitution” was promulgated in December, 1876, on the assembling of the European Conference at Constantinople. It provides representative institutions, local self-government, and various improvements, but is likely to remain a dead letter.