In addition to its applications to the iron and steel industry, silica finds an almost universal use in a wide variety of structural and manufacturing operations. The extensive use of sand and gravel--composed chiefly of silica--for road materials and railway ballast is well known. In construction work silica is used in the form of stone, sand-lime brick, cement, mortar, concrete, etc. Large quantities of sand, or silica, are used for molds in foundries, for abrasives, for the manufacture of glass, for filters, and for a great variety of other purposes which readily suggest themselves (see pp. 84, 267). For most uses of silica there are local supplies available. For certain purposes requiring material of a particular chemical composition or texture, however, satisfactory deposits are known in only a few places. For example, the material for silica refractories is obtained in the United States chiefly from certain regions in Pennsylvania, Missouri, and Wisconsin. The United States has ample domestic supplies of silica for practically all requirements. Ferrosilicon of the higher grades is manufactured principally in electric furnaces at Niagara Falls. The capacity is ample to meet all demands, but cheap ferrosilicon from Canada also enters United States markets. GEOLOGIC FEATURES Silicon and oxygen, making up the compound silica, are the two most abundant elements in the earth's crust, and quartz (SiO_2) is a very abundant mineral. The processes of weathering and transportation everywhere operative on the surface of the earth tend to separate quartz from other materials, and to concentrate it into deposits of sand. Katamorphism is primarily responsible for most of the deposits of silica which are commercially used. Anamorphism--cementing and hardening the sands into sandstones and quartzites--has created additional value for certain uses, as in refractories, building stones, and abrasives (see pp. 84, 267). FOOTNOTES: [31] Report of the Royal Ontario Nickel Commission. Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario, Toronto, 1917. [32] Campbell, J. Morrow, Tungsten deposits of Burma and their origin, _Econ. Geol._, vol. 15, 1920, p. 511. CHAPTER X COPPER, LEAD, AND ZINC MINERALS COPPER ORES ECONOMIC FEATURES The electrical industry is the largest consumer of copper. The manufacture of brass, bronze, and other copper alloys constitutes another chief use for the metal. Considerable quantities of copper sheets, tubes, and other wares are used outside of the electrical industry, as for instance in roofing, plumbing, and ship bottoms. Copper is also used in coinage, particularly in China, where it is the money standard of the working population.