The important commercial deposits of Colorado and Utah contain carnotite, together with roscoelite (a vanadium mica) and small amounts of chromium, copper, and molybdenum minerals, as impregnations of flat-lying Jurassic sandstones. The ores carry up to 35 per cent uranium oxide (though largely below 2 per cent), and from one-third as much to an equal amount of vanadium oxide. The ore minerals are supposed to have been derived from a thick series of clays and impure sandstones a few hundred feet above, containing uranium and vanadium minerals widely disseminated, and to have been carried downward by surface waters containing sulphates. The ore bodies vary from very small pockets to deposits yielding a thousand tons or so, and are found irregularly throughout certain particular beds without any special relation to present topography or to faults. The association of many of the deposits with fossil wood and other carbonaceous material suggests that organic matter was an agent in their precipitation, but the exact nature of the process is not clear. In a few places in Utah the beds dip at steep angles, and the carnotite appears in spots along the outcrops and generally disappears as the outcrops are followed into the hillsides; this suggests that the carnotite may be locally redissolved and carried to the surface by capillary action, forming rich efflorescences. Because of the nature of the deposits no large amount of ore is developed in advance of actual mining; but estimates based on past experience indicate great potentialities of this region for future production. In eastern Wyoming is a unique deposit of uranium ore in a quartzite which lies between mica-schist and granite. The principal ore mineral is uranophane, a hydrated calcium-uranium silicate, which is believed to be an oxidation product of pitchblende. Some of the ore runs as high as 4 per cent uranium oxide, and the ore carries appreciable amounts of copper but very little vanadium. Very recently radium ores have been discovered in the White Signal mining district of New Mexico, which was formerly worked for gold, silver, copper, and lead. The radium-bearing minerals are torbernite and autunite (hydrous copper-uranium and calcium-uranium phosphates), and are found in dark felsite dikes near their intersections with east-west gold-silver-quartz veins. The possibilities of this district have not yet been determined. Pitchblende has been found in gold-bearing veins in Gilpin County, eastern Colorado, and in pegmatite dikes in the Appalachians, but these deposits are of no commercial importance. Pitchblende is grayish-black, opaque, and so lacking in distinctive characteristics that it may readily be overlooked; hence future discoveries in various regions would not be surprising. CHAPTER XIII MISCELLANEOUS NON-METALLIC MINERALS NATURAL ABRASIVES ECONOMIC FEATURES