s. 197. Let any of the _vowels_ (for instance, the _a_ in _father_) be sounded. The lips, the tongue, and the parts within the throat remain in the same position: and as long as these remain in the same position the sound is that of the vowel under consideration. Let, however, a change take place in the position of the organs of sound; let, for instance, the lips be closed, or the tongue be applied to the front part of the mouth: in that case the vowel sound is cut short. It undergoes a change. It terminates in a sound that is different, according to the state of those organs whereof the position has been changed. If, on the vowel in question, the lips be closed, there then arises an imperfect sound of _b_ or _p_. If, on the other hand, the tongue be applied to the front teeth, or to the fore part of the palate, the sound is one (more or less imperfect) of _t_ or d. This fact illustrates the difference between the vowels and the consonants. It may be verified by pronouncing the _a_ in _fate_, _ee_ in _feet_, _oo_ in _book_, _o_ in _note_, &c. It is a further condition in the formation of a vowel sound, that the passage of the breath be uninterrupted. In the sound of the _l'_ in _lo_ (isolated from its vowel) the sound is as continuous as it is with the _a_ in _fate_. Between, however, the consonant _l_ and the vowel _a_ there is this difference: with _a_, the passage of the breath is uninterrupted; with _l_, the tongue is applied to the palate, breaking or arresting the passage of the breath. s. 198. The primary division of our articulate sounds is into vowels and consonants. The latter are again divided into liquids (_l_, _m_, _n_, _r_) and mutes (_p_, _b_, _f_, _v_, _t_, _d_, _g_, _s_, _z_, &c.) _Definitions_ for the different sorts of articulate sounds have still to be laid down. In place of these, we have general assertions concerning the properties and qualities of the respective classes. Concerning the consonants as a class, we may predicate one thing concerning the liquids, and concerning the mutes, another. What the nature of these assertions is, will be seen after the explanation of certain terms. s. 199. _Sharp and flat._--Take the sounds of _p_, _f_, _t_, _k_, _s_; isolate them from their vowels, and pronounce them. The sound is the sound of a whisper. {144} Let _b_, _v_, _d_, _g_, _z_, be similarly treated. The sound is no whisper, but one at the natural tone of our voice. Now _p_, _f_, _t_, _k_, _s_ (with some others that will be brought forward anon) are _sharp_, whilst _b_, _v_, &c. are _flat_. Instead of _sharp_, some say _hard_, and instead of _flat_, some say _soft_. The Sanskrit terms _sonant_ and _surd_ are, in a scientific point of view, the least exceptionable. They have, however, the disadvantage of being pedantic. The _tenues_ of the classics (as far as they go) are sharp, the _mediae_ flat.