[219] Kohl _v._ United States, 91 U. S., 367 (1875). [220] Art. i., 2: 5; 3: 6. [221] Compare Art. i., 6: 1, 2; 9: 8; Art. ii., 1: 1; Art., 5, 8; “officer” in Art. ii., 2: 1,2; Art. ii., 4: 1; “offices” in Art. iii., 1: 1; vi., 3. There is every reason that the framers of the Constitution used words with profound discernment and discriminating care. [222] Art. ii., 2: 1. [223] _Id._ i., 8: 11. [224] _Id._ i., 7: 2. [225] Constitution of Pennsylvania, 1873, iv., 16. [226] Art. ii., 2: 2. [227] _Id._ _The Federalist_, No. lxxv. [228] Art. ii., 2: 2. [229] _Id._, 2: 1. [230] July (14?), 1864. Lincoln’s _Works_ (Century Ed.) i., 548. [231] _In re_ Neagle, 135 U. S., 1 (1889). [232] Spaulding _v._ Vilas, 161 U. S., 483; U. S. _v._ Windom, 137 U. S., 636; U. S. _v._ Blaine, 139 U. S., 306. Marbury _v._ Madison, 1 Cranch, 137; Kendall _v._ U. S., 12 Peters, 524; U. S. _v._ Black, 128 U. S., 40; Mississippi _v._ Johnson, 4 Wallace, 475; Georgia _v._ Stanton, 6 Wallace, 57. [233] _Ex parte_ Garland, 4 Wallace, 333 (1886). [234] Art. i., 3: 6. [235] _Id._, 3: 4, 5. [236] Notes of conversation, etc., C. E., Stevens, _Sources of the Constitution of the United States_, 169. [237] _Id._, 168. [238] Mississippi _v._ Johnson, 4 Wallace, 475 (1866). [239] _Idem._ [240] Mississippi _v._ Johnson, 4 Wallace, 475 (1866). [241] Many cases; see State _ex rel._ _v._ Stone, 120 Missouri, 428 (1894), in which most of the cases are cited. But _mandamus_ will issue to an appointee of the executive, a ministerial officer, to perform a ministerial act. U. S. _ex rel._ Daly, 28 App. D. C., 552; 35 Wash. Law Rep., 81; Garfield _v._ U. S. _ex rel._ Frost, 30 App. D. C., 165; 35 Wash. Law Rep., 771; Griffin _v._ U. S., _ex rel._ Le Cuyer, 30 App. D. C., 291; 36 Wash. Law Rep., 103; Drake _v._ U. S., _ex rel._ Bates, 30 App. D. C., 312; 36 Wash. Law Rep., 140; U. S. _ex rel._ Newcomb Motor Co., 30 App. D. C., 464; 36 Wash. Law Rep., 150; also 36 Wash. Law Rep., 681. Also U. S. _ex rel._ _v._ Black, 128 U. S., 40 (1888). [242] United States _ex rel._ _v._ Black, 128 U. S., 40; and see the cases cited in preceding note. [243] Art. iii., 1: 1. [244] For the history of this amendment see the author’s _Constitutional History of the United States_, ii., 264–290. [245] See Iredell’s dissenting opinion in Chisholm _v._ Georgia, 2 Dallas 419 (1793). [246] _The Federalist_, No. xvi. [247] Art. iii., 2: 1; Amendment XI. [248] No. lxxx. [249] _In re_ Neagle, 135 U.S., 1 (1889). [250] _The Federalist_, No. lxxx. [251] _Id._ For example, were the Vice-President to preside over the Senate sitting as a Court of Impeachment. [252] _The Federalist_, _id._ [253] _The Federalist_, _id._ [254] Robertson _v._ Cease, 97 U. S., 646. [255] Art. iii., 2: 2. [256] Marbury _v._ Madison, 1 Cranch, 174. [257] Cohens _v._ Virginia, 6 Wheaton, 414 (1821). [258] _Idem._ [259] So Congress has denied such jurisdiction to State courts,—Revised Statutes, U. S., Sec. 687.