The three higher classes of vertebrates which we call the amniotes—the mammals, birds, and reptiles—are notably distinguished by a number of peculiarities of their development from the five lower classes of the stem—the animals without an amnion (the _anamnia_). All the amniotes have a distinctive embryonic membrane known as the amnion (or “water-membrane”), and a special embryonic appendage—the allantois. They have, further, a large yelk-sac, which is filled with food-yelk in the reptiles and birds, and with a corresponding clear fluid in the mammals. In consequence of these later-acquired structures, the original features of the development of the amniotes are so much altered that it is very difficult to reduce them to the palingenetic embryonic processes of the lower amnion-less vertebrates. The gastræa theory shows us how to do this, by representing the embryology of the lowest vertebrate, the skull-less amphioxus, as the original form, and deducing from it, through a series of gradual modifications, the gastrulation and cœlomation of the craniota. It was somewhat fatal to the true conception of the chief embryonic processes of the vertebrate that all the older embryologists, from Malpighi (1687) and Wolff (1750) to Baer (1828) and Remak (1850), always started from the investigation of the hen’s egg, and transferred to man and the other vertebrates the impressions they gathered from this. This classical object of embryological research is, as we have seen, a source of dangerous errors. The large round food-yelk of the bird’s egg causes, in the first place, a flat discoid expansion of the small gastrula, and then so distinctive a development of this thin round embryonic disk that the controversy as to its significance occupies a large part of embryological literature.