the original structure is always the same, and is very simple. As a rule, it is longer (often several times longer) than the body, and therefore folded and winding within the body-cavity, especially at the lower end. In man and the higher vertebrates it is divided into several sections, often separated by valves--the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, and rectum. All these parts develop from a very simple structure, which originally (throughout life in the amphioxus) runs from end to end under the chorda in the shape of a straight cylindrical canal. As the alimentary canal may be regarded morphologically as the oldest and most important organ in the body, it is interesting to understand its essential features in the vertebrate more fully, and distinguish them from unessential features. In this connection we must particularly note that the alimentary canal of every vertebrate shows a very characteristic division into two sections--a fore and a hind chamber. The fore chamber is the head-gut or branchial gut (Figures 1.98 to 1.100 p, k), and is chiefly occupied with respiration. The hind section is the trunk-gut or hepatic gut, which accomplishes digestion (ma, d). In all vertebrates there are formed, at an early stage, to the right and left in the fore-part of the head-gut, certain special clefts that have an intimate connection with the original respiratory apparatus of the vertebrate--the branchial (gill) clefts (ks). All the lower vertebrates, the lancelets, lampreys, and fishes, are constantly taking in water at the mouth, and letting it out again by the lateral clefts of the gullet. This water serves for breathing. The oxygen contained in it is inspired by the blood-canals, which spread out on the parts between the gill-clefts, the gill-arches (kg). These very characteristic branchial clefts and arches are found in the embryo of man and all the higher vertebrates at an early stage of development, just as we find them throughout life in the lower vertebrates. However, these clefts and arches never act as respiratory organs in the mammals, birds, and reptiles, but gradually develop into quite different parts. Still, the fact that they are found at first in the same form as in the fishes is one of the most interesting proofs of the descent of these three higher classes from the fishes. Not less interesting and important is an organ that develops from the ventral wall in all vertebrates--the gill-groove or hypobranchial groove. In the acrania and the ascidiae it consists throughout life of a glandular ciliated groove, which runs down from the mouth in the ventral middle line of the gill-gut, and takes small particles of food to the stomach (Figure 1.101 z). But in the craniota the thyroid gland (thyreoidea) is developed from it, the gland that lies in front of the larynx, and which, when pathologically enlarged, forms goitre (struma).