the second half of the nineteenth century affords a fruitful topic for discussion as outlined in the next few pages. (Summary on page 176.) CHAPTER XII. FRANCE AND ITALY. I. =France.= It will be recalled that Chapter VIII treats of the flourishing conditions of musical art in France at the time when it was undergoing a series of metamorphoses that embodied nascent modern tendencies. The standard of sacred music was being elevated by Cherubini; French opera in serious vein as well as French instrumentation had acquired distinctly indigenous characteristics through the efforts of two native composers, Méhul and Lesueur; the development of the lighter lyric style as bequeathed by Grétry lay in the hands of the Frenchmen Boieldieu, Auber, Hérold, Halévy; finally, a renewed interest for grand opera was awakened by the so-called historic school of Spontini, which was followed by the enthusiastic reception of Rossini's melodious and emotional productions, and of Meyerbeer's sensational and spectacular presentations. Of momentous purport was the influence that these three foreigners, Spontini, Rossini, and Meyerbeer exerted upon French orchestration. Meanwhile an absolutely novel aspect of musical activity was being developed by Berlioz, who, as one of the founders of the "New Movement," has already been treated in Chapter XI in connection with Liszt and Wagner. In resuming and concluding the topic now under discussion, it would be well to keep the above brief review clearly in mind, in order that the simultaneous evolution of musical art in France and Germany may the better be compared. With the exception of Berlioz, Félicien David and Gounod, few French writers have, until recently, applied themselves to independent orchestral music as one of the primary objects of their ambition. In France, the operatic stage ever has been and still is the centre of attraction. Even the most recent of her composers can with difficulty be separated into distinct groups that shall represent exclusive devotion to dramatic writing only or to sacred music or to concert works. Nevertheless, the present writer, having attempted to bring order out of the rather heterogeneous array of nineteenth century French composers, has classified them according to that particular branch in which they have been conspicuously successful. II. Prominent contributors to instrumental and orchestral music are Onslow, Reber, David, Franck, Lalo, Reyer, Godard, d'Indy.