269 Varro, _De ling. lat._ ix. 61; Arnobius, _Adv. nationes_, iii. 41; Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 7, 35; Festus, p. 128, ed. Müller. Festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the _larvae_; the other writers speak of the mother of the _lares_. 270 Macrobius, _l.c._; Festus, pp. 121, 239, ed. Müller. The effigies hung up for the slaves were called _pilae_, not _maniae_. _Pilae_ was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown to the bulls to gore in the arena. Martial, _Epigr._ ii. 43, 5 _sq._; Asconius, _In Cornel._ p. 55, ed. Kiessling and Schoell. 271 The ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the animals themselves. It was a recognised principle that when an animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice, it was lawful to offer an image of it made of bread or wax. Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 116. (Similarly a North-American Indian dreamed that a sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick girl; but the elans could not be procured, and the girl’s parents were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead. _Relations des Jesuites_, 1636, p. 11, ed. 1858). Poor people who could not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them. Suidas, _s.v._ βοῦς ἕβδομος; cp. Hesychius, _s. vv._ βοῦς, ἕβδομος βοῦς. Hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods. Proculus, quoted and emended by Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 1079. When Cyzicus was besieged by Mithridates and the people could not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of Proserpine, they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar. Plutarch, _Lucullus_, 10. In a Boeotian sacrifice to Hercules, in place of the ram which was the proper victim, an apple was regularly substituted, four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two to represent horns. Pollux, i. 30 _sq._ The Athenians are said to have once offered to Hercules a similar substitute for an ox. Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 22. And the Locrians, being at a loss for an ox to sacrifice, made one out of figs and sticks, and offered it instead of the animal. Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 5. At the Athenian festival of the Diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed. Schol. on Thucydides, i. 126, quoted by Lobeck, _l.c._ We have seen above (p. 53) that the poorer Egyptians offered dough images of pigs and ate them sacramentally. 272 P. J. Veth, _Borneo’s Wester Afdeeling_, ii. 309. 273 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_, i. 326. 274 Shway Yoe, _The Burman_, ii. 138. 275 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 133.