Darius was not an ordinary Oriental despot. He was a ruler who, considering the time at which he lived, displayed extraordinary enlightenment and moderation in his dealings with the subject races. This laudable feature of his government cannot be ascribed wholly to his philanthropy. It was largely the outcome of a policy of caution. He was strongly averse to placing large bodies of troops at the disposal of the satraps of the outlying provinces, unless circumstances actually demanded it. The measure taken by Artaphernes, [probably, as it would seem, by Darius’ direct orders,] with regard to the establishment of a system of arbitration between the towns, does of itself show how inadequate under ordinary circumstances were the means at the disposal even of a great satrap for the repression of acts of war against one another on the part of sections of the subject populations within the provincial area. The elimination of causes of discontent among the peoples of the empire was a necessary derivative of Darius’ policy towards the satraps. The main task, however, which Mardonios was commissioned to perform lay in Europe. Herodotus’ description of the design of the expedition is remarkable. ◆H. vi. 43, 44.◆ “Having crossed the Hellespont in ships, they proceeded on their march against Eretria and Athens. These places were the pretended objects of the expedition. But as they intended to subdue as many of the Greek cities as possible, they in the first place reduced the Thasians with their fleet without resistance, and then with the army added the Macedonians to the number of those in servitude. All the tribes on the near side of Macedonia had been already reduced.” It is noteworthy that all this had been achieved before serious disaster fell on the expedition. It was _after_ the reduction of Macedonia,—a conquest which the history of subsequent years shows to have been genuine and complete,—that the fleet, coming from Thasos and Akanthos, was caught in a storm off Mount Athos, the easternmost of the promontories of the peninsula of Chalkidike. The _reported_ loss, says Herodotus, was 300 ships and 20,000 men, his language implying that he was disposed to regard the number as exaggerated. Another disaster of a minor character befel the land forces. They were attacked at night by a tribe in Macedonia called the Brygi; Mardonios himself was wounded, and the Persian losses are said to have been considerable; but Herodotus expressly adds that— ◆H. vi. 45.◆ “Not even the Brygi escaped slavery at the hands of the Persians; for Mardonios did not leave the region until he had reduced them. After subduing them, he took his expedition back [to Asia], for the army had met with disaster at the hands of the Brygi, and the fleet had suffered terribly off Athos. So the expedition went back to Asia, after meeting with disgraceful reverses.” The two main questions with regard to this expedition are— (1) As to its intent;