It may be that in house-building the work was purposely subordinated to that adopted in church-building: it may be that the fact of houses being subject to attacks from which the sacred character of churches preserved them, led to an avoidance of costly or elaborate ornament. But, whatever the reason, the richest of domestic doorways and windows cannot compare in splendour with the finer specimens of such features in churches or cathedrals; and, as a rule, their richness was restrained within severe and narrow bounds. In some of the more important dwellings, especially in the earliest times, considerable attention was bestowed upon doorways, and the employment of several “orders,” or shallow arches placed in receding fashion one behind the other, led to striking and even noble effects. Windows are such vulnerable points that they were in early times almost always small and plain. Ceilings were merely the constructional expression of the floors of which they formed the under side. Fireplaces were only so far ornamented as their construction seemed to suggest, especially in the earlier examples. It was not until the time of Elizabeth that the chimney-piece as a stately and predominating feature came into fashion. [Illustration: 50. Warkworth Castle. Entrance Gateway (late 14th cent.).] * * * * * During the mediæval period, throughout the whole of which it was necessary to guard against assault, EXTERNAL DOORWAYS were simple in treatment, and were protected either by being placed in a recess commanded by openings through which arrows could be shot (called oillets), or by being surmounted at greater or less height by projecting stonework which concealed openings (called machicolations) through which missiles of various kinds could be hurled upon the heads of those attempting to force an entrance. In many cases, as at Warkworth Castle (Fig. 50), both these methods of defence were adopted. An oillet can be seen on the canted face to the left of the doorway; the machicolations are carried across between the two turrets. Frequently the entrance was further protected by a portcullis, or massive grille of wood, which slid up and down in a groove in the stonework. Nearly every castle and many of the fortified houses were thus defended, and there are innumerable instances in which the grooves may still be seen. These defensive arrangements are an interesting subject, but are outside the present purpose, except in so far as they affect the architectural treatment. Machicolations are sometimes found over doors in dwelling-houses, but more generally in connection with the gatehouse. They not infrequently occur at the summit of towers, and impart the characteristic appearance produced by the heavy projection which they necessitated. One result of the universal need for protection was that doorways were generally small; small, that is, in comparison with those that came into use in the seventeenth century.