8. A “swine,” 1⅗ scilling (1s. 10d.). Present price, £1 10s. Ratio 1 to 16. 9. A sheep, 1 scilling (1s. 1½d.). Present price, £2. Ratio 1 to 35. 10. A goat, ⅖ of a scilling (5½d.). Present price, 15s. Ratio 1 to 33. It will be seen from the above rough calculations how impossible it is to get any fixed proportion between the purchasing power of money in Anglo-Saxon times and in our own. As to one very important element, the price of grain, we have no satisfactory information; but from the records of later centuries (from the thirteenth onwards) it seems probable that, with frequent and violent fluctuations, it generally ruled relatively higher than the price of cattle. On the whole, for historical purposes, if the reader mentally translates the scilling of Wessex into the pound sterling of our own day he will probably not go far wrong. It may be well to add a few other monetary terms belonging chiefly to the later centuries of Anglo-Saxon history. 1. The _Mancus_ was one-eighth of a pund: or 30 penings. The name is said to be derived from the Arabic. The Mancus in the time of Athelstan was the standard price of an ox. 2. The _Thrymsa_ of Mercia was originally a gold coin (derived from the Roman _tremissis_), but afterwards the word was used to denote a unit of value, the equivalent of 3 penings. 3. The _Sceatt_ was very nearly equivalent to the pening; but 250 not 240 went to the pund. 4. The _Mark_, a Danish word, denotes the equivalent of half a pound. 5. The _Ora_ was the eighth part of a mark. It was held to be equivalent to 2½ scillings of Wessex, but there is some difficulty in the equation of these Danish and Saxon currencies. According to _Domesday Book_ the Ore contained 20 pence, and accordingly the Mark would be equal not to 120 but to 160 pence. On the other hand, Ethelred’s laws, iv., 9, say that the pound contained 15 ores. This would make the Mark if it was half a pound equivalent to 7½ ores. (See Chadwick, _l.c._, chapter i., for a discussion of this perplexing question.) CHAPTER XIV. THE EIGHTH CENTURY. The eighth century was in many ways a memorable one for Europe and Asia. In the east it was the period of the greatest splendour of the Caliphs of Baghdad; at Constantinople it saw the rule of the strong, stern iconoclastic emperors who set the spiritual authority of the popes at defiance; in Italy it beheld the downfall of Lombard rule, in Spain the subjection of nine-tenths of the country to the domination of the Moors.