The next “type-element” necessary to consider will be the topic of Spanish modes of navigation. At this point our lesson becomes typical of the period of exploration in general rather than of Spanish explorations in particular, inasmuch as Spanish vessels, sailors, etc., were not, for our purposes in the grades at least, essentially different from those of other contemporary nations. It is important, however, that our pupils should have definite ideas on this point if their knowledge of the early explorations is to be in any true sense real. Pictures of Spanish vessels of the period are easy to procure, and should be referred to in this connection. Attention should be called to the significant features of these boats,--their small size, their peculiar construction, their usual rate of speed, etc. In all purely descriptive work of this sort it is well for the teacher to keep in mind that a happy comparison is frequently of more value than pages of prosy details and measurements. Take, for example, Mark Twain’s delightful comparison in his description of one of the pyramids: each stone as big as a freight-car! Finally, the prevailing superstitious fears of unknown seas, wild notions regarding the monsters of the deep and inhabitants of distant lands, the consequent scarcity of sailors for voyages of exploration, the bravery and steadfastness of purpose required to lead such an expedition,--these points may surely be said to constitute a “type-element.” To be sure, as time went on and ignorance of distant regions gradually disappeared, the force of these factors in history diminished. Throughout the exploration period, however, they remain an element to be reckoned with and constantly to be referred to. Selections from Mandeville might very appropriately be read in this connection to lend color and life to the presentation. Life of Columbus. We are now ready to consider what we have designated the “specific elements” of the Columbus lesson; that is, those features of the story that refer to Columbus as an individual explorer, but can hardly be considered typical of the Spanish explorations in general. If the “type-elements” have been duly impressed, this portion of the lesson will present little difficulty and can be covered in a comparatively short time, largely, in fact, in the form of readings. The nationality and early life of Columbus should first occupy the attention of teacher and class. The fact that he was an Italian is significant. Passing reference might well be made to the political disorganization of Italy and the declining importance of its commercial centers. The boyhood of our hero is picturesque and may easily be made to arouse the interest of boys and girls of our own day. Let them feel that he was a child like themselves and give them some appreciation of his childhood’s environment,--the Italian sky and sea-coast.