_Yard Hopper Closets._--Where the water-closet accommodations cannot, for some reason, be put within the house, yard hopper closets are commonly employed. These closets are simply long, iron-enameled hoppers, trapped, and connected with a drain pipe discharging into the house drain. These closets are flushed from cisterns, but, in such case, the cisterns must be protected from freezing; this is accomplished in some houses by putting the yard hopper near the house and placing the cistern within the house; however, this can hardly be done where several hoppers must be employed. In most cases, yard hoppers are flushed by automatic rod valves, so constructed as to flush the bowl of the hopper whenever the seat is pressed upon. These valves, as a rule, frequently get out of order and leak, and care must be taken to construct the vault under the hopper so that it be perfectly water-tight. An improved form of yard hopper has been suggested by Inspector J. Sullivan, of the New York Health Department, and used in a number of places with complete satisfaction. The improvement consists in the doors and walls of the privy apartment being of double thickness, lined with builders' lining on the inside, and the water service-pipes and cistern being protected by felt or mineral wool packing. [Illustration: FIG. 30. J. SULLIVAN'S IMPROVED YARD HOPPER CLOSET.] [Illustration: FIG. 31. A MODERN WATER-CLOSET. (J. L. Mott Iron Works.)] =Yard and Area Drains.=--The draining of the surface of the yard or other areas is done by tile or iron pipes connecting with the sewer or house drain in the cellar. The "bell" or the "lip" traps are to be condemned and should not be used for yard drains. The gully and trap should be made of one piece; the trap should be of the siphon type and should be deep enough in the ground to prevent the freezing of seal in winter. FOOTNOTES: [18] Waterproof paint or tiling should be used for this purpose.--EDITOR. [19] Tiling, linoleum, concrete, etc., as opposed to wood or carpets.--EDITOR. CHAPTER IX =Defects in Plumbing= The materials used in house plumbing are many and various, the parts are very numerous, the joints and connections are frequent, the position and location of pipes, etc., are often inaccessible and hidden, and the whole system quite complicated. Moreover, no part of the house construction is subjected to so many strains and uses, as well as abuses, as the plumbing of the house. Hence, in no part of house construction can there be as much bad work and "scamping" done as in the plumbing; and no part of the house is liable to have so many defects in construction, maintenance, and condition as the plumbing. At the same time, the plumbing of a house is of very great importance and influence on the health of the tenants, for defective materials, bad workmanship, and improper condition of the plumbing of a house may endanger the lives of its inhabitants by causing various diseases.