not an easy task to correctly estimate the motives which guide our neighbour in his actions, and in doing so we err frequently; but it is better to err by over-estimating them; since this produces far less harm than going astray in the other direction and speaking ill of others without any justifiable cause. Conduct like this leads to peace and happiness within and without. “Speaking peace to all his seed” is the climax of the virtues praised in Mordecai, the Jew (Esther x. 3). Charity (tsedakah) in its narrower sense, as a duty towards the poor, includes— (1.) Alms-giving to the poor for the purpose of alleviating temporary suffering. (2.) Providing for the comfort of the aged and sick, widows and orphans. (3.) Assisting the stranger. The Law lays special stress on this branch of charity, and reminds us that we all have once been strangers in the land of Egypt. Even in the various countries of which we have become citizens, our forefathers, three or four generations back, were strangers; and, besides, we are told by the Almighty, “Ye are strangers and sojourners with me:” (Lev. xxv. 23). This kind of charity is known by the name ‏הכנסת אורחים‎ (4.) Support given to the poor towards obtaining a livelihood, by procuring occupation for them, teaching them a trade and giving them a start in it. (5.) Providing for the religious and secular education of the children of the poor. (6.) Raising their intellectual, social, and moral condition by personal intercourse with them, and by kind words of advice, comfort, and encouragement. (7.) Helping those who have gone astray and have fallen into vice or crime to return to the path of virtue, industry, and righteousness. There are generally associations formed for the various branches of gemilluth-chesed, the number of which grows, especially in large towns, with the increase of misery. It is our duty to support such institutions, as combined action is in most cases more practical and productive of good result. But the existence of public institutions, and our support given to them, by no means exempt us from assisting individually those who apply to us for help. We must be judicious in our charitable acts, lest we nurse poverty and promote imposture. But, on the other hand, we must not be over cautious, and must not unduly suspect every applicant for assistance as guilty of idleness or other vices, lest by refusal or hesitation to help we become guilty of neglect, when by prompt action we might save from utter ruin a person or a whole family well worthy of our sympathy. In this regard we are warned by King Solomon: “Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, when it is in the power of thine hand to do it. Say not unto thy neighbour, Go, and come again, and to-morrow I will give; when thou hast it by thee” (Prov. iii. 27, 28). (b.) Special Duties towards our Fellow-men.