Coal derives its name from the Anglo-Saxon word KOL, to kindle. It is a well-known solid black combustible substance, the remains of old forests and earth vegetation which chemical action has changed chiefly by the elimination of oxygen and hydrogen. Many dyes, acids, gases, flavourings, etc., are obtained from this important product. Amongst these are tar, coke, creosote, carbolic acid, naphtha, sal-ammoniac, ammonia, various explosives, drugs, mineral vanilla, etc. Dr. Brewer explains that to “haul over the coals” is historically and literally true: “At one time,” he says, “the Jews were ‘bled’ whenever the Kings or barons wanted money, and one very common torture, if they resisted, was to haul them over the coals of a slow fire to give them a roasting.” Sir Walter Scott alludes to this practice in “Ivanhoe.” Professor John Henry Pepper, writing, on “Coal and Coal Mines,” introduces the following interesting details: "In olden time, before a cargo of coals could be discharged from a collier, it was necessary to obtain the permission of the Lord Mayor who, for a certain consideration, granted the required permission. This much honoured magistrate and his worthy coadjutors, the aldermen, with the common councilmen and livery called the Corporation were permitted to lay a tax upon the “black diamonds” that amounted to something like £50,000 per annum. In 1830 the heaviest of the coal duties were abolished: and since that time the trade has assumed gigantic proportions which have made it the marvel of the civilized world. The first licences to dig coals were granted to the burgesses of Newcastle by Henry III and in 1281 a very good trade existed in that fuel. A proclamation in the reign of King Edward I shows the introduction of coal as a substitute for wood, and a charter of Edward II indicates that Derbyshire coal was used in London. In the same reign coals were first sent from Newcastle for the benefit of those trades which required fuel: and in 1316 a petition was made from Parliament to the King praying His Majesty to forbid all use of the new and pestilent fuel called “coals,” which was acceded to, and a proclamation made, commanding all use of coals to cease and determine, and threatening all who burnt coals to be mulcted, and on a second offence to have their furnaces demolished. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth the burning of stone coal was again prohibited during the sitting of Parliament. At a subsequent period, about 1648, coals were once more placed under a ban.... In 1520 Newcastle coal was first exported into Paris."