A common defect in standing timber results from radial splits which extend inward from the periphery of the tree, and almost, if not always, near the base. It is most common in trees which split readily, and those with large rays and thin bark. The primary cause of the splitting is frost, and various theories have been advanced to explain the action. R. Hartig[35] believes that freezing forces out a part of the imbibition water of the cell walls, thereby causing the wood to shrink, and if the interior layers have not yet been cooled, tangential strains arise which finally produce radial clefts. [Footnote 35: Hartig, R.: The diseases of trees (trans. by Somerville and Ward), London and New York, 1894, pp. 282-294.] Another theory holds that the water is not driven out of the cell walls, but that difference in temperature conditions of inner and outer layers is itself sufficient to set up the strains, resulting in splitting. An air temperature of 14°F. or less is considered necessary to produce frost splits. A still more recent theory is that of Busse[36] who considers the mechanical action of the wind a very important factor. He observed: (_a_) Frost splits sometimes occur at higher temperatures than 14°F. (_b_) Most splits take place shortly before sunrise, _i.e._, at the time of lowest air and soil temperature; they are never heard to take place at noon, afternoon, or evening. (_c_) They always occur between two roots or between the collars of two roots, (_d_) They are most frequent in old, stout-rooted, broad-crowned trees; in younger stands it is always the stoutest members that are found with frost splits, while in quite young stands they are altogether absent, (_e_) Trees on wet sites are most liable to splits, due to difference in wood structure, just as difference in wood structure makes different species vary in this regard. (_f_) Frost splits are most numerous less than three feet above the ground. [Footnote 36: Busse, W.: Frost-, Ring- und Kernrisse. Forstwiss. Centralb., XXXII, 2, 1910, pp. 74-81.] When a tree is swayed by the wind the roots are counteracting forces, and the wood fibres are tested in tension and compression by the opposing forces; where the roots exercise tension stresses most effectively the effect of compression stresses is at a minimum; only where the pressure is in excess of the tension, _i.e._, between the roots, can a separation of the fibre result. Hence, when by frost a tension on the entire periphery is established, and the wind localizes additional strains, failure occurs. The stronger the compression and tension, the severer the strains and the oftener failures occur. The occurrence of reports of frost splits on wind-still days is believed by Busse to be due to the opening of old frost splits where the tension produced by the frost alone is sufficient.