[56] The most striking illustration of the correctness of this reasoning, is found in Roman history, the earlier portion of which is--thanks to Niebuhr's genius--just beginning to be understood. The lawless followers of Romulus first coalesced with the Sabines; the two nations united, then compelled the Albans to raze their city to the ground, and settle in Rome. Next came the Latins, to whom, also, a portion of the city was allotted for settlement. These two conquered nations were, of course, not permitted the same civil and political privileges as the conquerors, and, with the exception of a few noble families among them (which probably had been, from the beginning, in the interests of the conquerors), these tribes formed the _plebs_. The distinction by nations was forgotten, and had become a distinction of _classes_. Then began the progress which Mr. Gobineau describes. The Plebeians first gained their _tribunes_, who could protect their interests against the one-sided legislation of the dominant class; then, the right of discussing and deciding certain public questions in the _comitia_, or public assembly. Next, the law prohibiting intermarriage between the Patricians and Plebeians was repealed; and thus, in course of time, the government changed from an oligarchical to a democratic form. I might go into details, or, I might mention other nations in which the same process is equally manifest, but I think the above well-known facts sufficient to bring the author's idea into a clear light, and illustrate its correctness. The history of the Middle Ages, the establishment of serfdom and its gradual abolition, also furnish an analogue. Wherever we see an hereditary aristocracy (whether called class or caste), it will be found to originate in a race, which, if no longer _dominant_, was once conqueror. Before the Norman conquest, the English aristocracy was _Saxon_, there were no nobles of the ancient British blood, east of Wales; after the conquest, the aristocracy was _Norman_, and nine-tenths of the noble families of England to this day trace, or pretend to trace, their origin to that stock. The noble French families, anterior to the Revolution, were almost all of _Frankish_ or _Burgundian_ origin. The same observation applies everywhere else. In support of my opinion, I have Niebuhr's great authority: "Wherever there are castes, they are the consequence of foreign conquest and subjugation; it is impossible for a nation to submit to such a system, unless it be compelled by the calamities of a conquest. By this means only it is, that, contrary to the will of a people, circumstances arise which afterwards assume the character of a division into classes or castes."--_Lect. on Anc. Hist._ (In the English translation, this passage occurs in vol. i. p. 90.)