Alas for the prodigal inventions of man! in how many ways have we augmented the value of things![659] In addition to the standard value of these metals, the art of painting lends its aid, and we have rendered gold and silver still more costly by the art of chasing them. Man has learned how to challenge both Nature and art to become the incitements to vice! His very cups he has delighted to engrave with libidinous subjects, and he takes pleasure in drinking from vessels of obscene form![660] But in lapse of time, the metals passed out of fashion, and men began to make no account of them; gold and silver, in fact, became too common. From this same earth we have extracted vessels of murrhine[661] and vases of crystal,[662] objects the very fragility of which is considered to enhance their value. In fact, it has come to be looked upon as a proof of opulence, and as quite the glory of luxury, to possess that which may be irremediably destroyed in an instant. Nor was even this enough;—we now drink from out of a mass of gems,[663] and we set our goblets with smaragdi;[664] we take delight in possessing the wealth of India, as the promoter of intoxication, and gold is now nothing more than a mere accessory.[665] CHAP. 3.—WHAT WAS THE FIRST RECOMMENDATION OF GOLD. Would that gold could have been banished for ever from the earth, accursed by universal report,[666] as some of the most celebrated writers have expressed themselves, reviled by the reproaches of the best of men, and looked upon as discovered only for the ruin of mankind. How much more happy the age when things themselves were bartered for one another; as was the case in the times of the Trojan war, if we are to believe what Homer says. For, in this way, in my opinion, was commerce then carried on for the supply of the necessaries of life. Some, he tells us, would make their purchases by bartering ox-hides, and others by bartering iron or the spoil which they had taken from the enemy:[667] and yet he himself, already an admirer of gold, was so far aware of the relative value of things, that Glaucus, he informs us, exchanged his arms of gold, valued at one hundred oxen, for those of Diomedes, which were worth but nine.[668] Proceeding upon the same system of barter, many of the fines imposed by ancient laws, at Rome even, were levied in cattle,[669] [and not in money]. CHAP. 4.—THE ORIGIN OF GOLD RINGS.