Max Nordau, the well-known writer, supports a similar theory. According to him, all living nature betrays its optimistic foundation. “The truth is,” he says, “that optimism, limitless and irradicable optimism, constitutes the fundamental attitude of man, and is the instinctive feeling which governs him under all circumstances. All other forms of life confirm this truth....” “All nature,” according to Max Nordau, “by the bells of flowers and the throats of her birds, rings and proclaims the truth of optimism.” “No animals feel the pain of the world; and our own ancestor, the contemporary of the cave bear, was certainly free from all anxiety relating to the destiny of the human race.” These arguments do not take into account that, to be true, pessimism need not necessarily be felt and agreed with by all living creatures. Birds and other animals, happy in their lives, that is to say optimists, know nothing of the inevitability of death. Our cave ancestors knew nothing of it either. If the greater portion of modern humanity is optimistic, that might be accounted for by its being still under the influence of one of the three phases of illusion alluded to by Hartmann. It is only when the highest stage of development is reached that man, being convinced of the futility of his hopes, arrives at a pessimistic conception of the universe. Max Nordau disclaims discipleship of Doctor Pangloss, who held that the world is the best of all possible worlds. But his arguments reveal a pronounced optimism. He regards pain as an indispensable factor of the maintenance of life. “Without pain,” he says, “our lives would not endure an hour, for we should be unable to recognise dangerous symptoms and guard against them.” Insensibility to pain is often so grave a symptom that sick people rejoice when they are again able to feel the prick of a needle. This is true enough, but none the less the feeling of pain is very erratic in both animals and human beings. Quite insignificant causes and unimportant illnesses, such as certain forms of neuralgia, give rise to unbearable agony. A physiological phenomenon such as childbirth is often attended by extremely violent pain which is absolutely useless as a danger-signal. On the other hand, some of the most dangerous diseases, such as cancer or kidney disease, may exist for a long time without causing any sensation of pain, with the result that the sufferer knows nothing of the presence of the disease until it is too late. Were pain to play the part assigned to it by Nordau, it would appear in all cases of danger, and yet would never become almost unbearably acute.