It has been said that the first blow in the battle for the independence of the South American colonies was struck by the hand of the monarchy itself, when the order was given to expel the Jesuits from the Spanish possessions, in 1767. It was shortly after this event that the old-time enmity between _Vascongado_ and _Vicuña_ began to reappear in their descendants, the Spanish authorities and the Creole students of the University of San Francisco Javier,—years before the first patriots announced their campaign. According to some authorities, the revolution was fostered by the Jesuits, who resented as an injustice the edict issued against them, and helped to sow the first seeds of republicanism in the minds of the South American subjects of Spain. In Lima, the centre of colonial power, there was little more than a rumor of the discontent that had developed out of the quarrels between _criollos_ (Spanish-Americans) and _chapetones_ (Spaniards) in Potosí and Sucre; at the time of the Jesuits’ banishment, Lima was apparently happy in the enjoyment of peace and plenty. The capital was constantly becoming richer and more attractive with its brilliant court functions, its gay carnivals, its fashionable promenades, its theatre, balls and splendid religious festivities. In 1778, during the administration of the Viceroy Guirior, Amat’s successor, the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires was formed, embracing the former Audiencia of Charcas. A final attempt was made in 1780, by the descendants of the Incas, to regain their lost empire. It was carefully planned, boldly initiated, and bravely carried forward, assuming formidable proportions under the leadership of an Indian cacique, who called himself Tupac Amaru, and claimed descent from the Inca Manco. Goaded to desperation on account of the iniquities committed against his people by the minor authorities, who could never be brought to justice, he determined to take the law in his own hands, and one night seized a ruthless offender, the _corregidor_ of his community in the province of Cuzco, whom he overpowered and dragged to his house. After forcing the magistrate to issue orders that Indians and Spaniards should obey the orders of the Inca, he hanged the unfortunate official in the plaza and robbed his house, securing thirty thousand dollars, which he used to promote his campaign. He collected an army of sixty thousand followers, intending to march on Cuzco, seize the city and reëstablish the Inca empire; but his followers were undisciplined, his troops badly organized, and in the first encounter with the regiments of the colonial army he lost twenty thousand men. The Bishop of Cuzco threatened with excommunication all who remained in the rebel ranks, and many leading supporters withdrew, leaving Tupac Amaru to meet seventeen thousand drilled soldiers in a battle in which his ranks were thrown into utter confusion, and he was defeated and captured by the enemy. He was put to the torture of being