Custom has proved stronger than law and religion combined. Sir Richard Burton writes of the Bedouins, "Though the revealed law of the Koran, being insufficient for the Desert, is openly disregarded, the immemorial customs of the _Kazi al-Arab_ (the Judge of the Arabs) form a system stringent in the extreme."[20] So, also, the Turkomans are ruled, often tyrannised over, by a mighty sovereign, invisible indeed to themselves, but whose presence is plainly discerned in the word _deb_--"custom," "usage." Our authority adds:--"It is very remarkable how little the 'Deb' has suffered in its struggle of eight centuries with Mahommedanism. Many usages, which are prohibited to the Islamite, and which the Mollahs make the object of violent attack, exist in all their ancient originality."[21] [Footnote 20: Burton, _Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah_, ii. 87.] [Footnote 21: Vámbéry, _Travels in Central Asia_, p. 310 _sqq._] The laws themselves, in fact, command obedience more as customs than as laws. A rule of conduct which, from one point of view, is a law, is in most cases, from another point of view, a custom; for, as Hegel remarks, "the valid laws of a nation, when written and collected, do not cease to be customs."[22] There are instances of laws that were never published, the knowledge and administration of which belonged to a privileged class, and which nevertheless were respected and obeyed.[23] And among ourselves the ordinary citizen stands in no need of studying the laws under which he lives, custom being generally the safe guiding star of his conduct. Custom, as Bacon said, is "the principal magistrate of man's life,"[24] or, as the ancients put it, "the king of all men."[25] [Footnote 22: Hegel, _Philosophie des Rechts_, § 211, p. 199.] [Footnote 23: Rein, _Japan_, p. 314.] [Footnote 24: Bacon, 'Essay xxxix. Of Custom and Education,' in _Essays_, p. 372.] [Footnote 25: Herodotus, iii. 38.] {165} Many laws were customs before they became laws. Ancient customs lie at the foundation of all Aryan law-books. Mr. Mayne is of opinion that Hindu law is based upon customs which existed even prior to and independent of Brahmanism.[26] The Greek word [Greek: no/mos] means both custom and law, and this combination of meanings was not owing to poverty of language, but to the deep-rooted idea of the Greek people that law is, and ought to be, nothing more and nothing less than the outcome of national custom.[27] A great part of the Roman law was founded on the _mores majorum_; in the Institutes of Justinian, it is expressly said that "long prevailing customs, being sanctioned by the consent of those who use them, assume the nature of Laws."[28] The case was similar with the ancient laws of the Teutons and Irish.[29] [Footnote 26: Mayne, _op. cit._ p. 4.] [Footnote 27: Ziegler, _Social Ethics_, p. 30. Schmidt, _Ethik der alten Griechen_, i. 201.] [Footnote 28: _Institutiones_, i. 2. 9.]