The Goths and other German peoples were from early times brought into relationship with the Romans, and had acquired some of the advantages of their civilization. Originally their medical notions were not dissimilar to those of other barbaric nations. On the one hand, there was the belief in disease as the manifestation of the anger of supernatural beings who could be propitiated by prayers and magic rites; while on the other, the use of medicinal plants and the ministrations of old women were not less prominent. Tacitus points out the important part played by the women in the life of the Germans, and the good influence they exerted as nurses to the sick. The Roman general Agricola, who was in Britain from A.D. 78-84, induced the noblemen’s sons to learn the liberal sciences.[621] They must have acquired some knowledge of Greek and Roman medicine. In the earliest ages, says Baas,[622] women only seem to have practised medicine among the Germans and Celts. Medicine was deemed a profession unworthy of men, and it is not till the twelfth century that physicians are spoken of. Probably old women or Druidesses in ancient times were the only doctors of these peoples. Puschmann says that the Norwegians had a number of highly paid doctors in the tenth century, and that already a medical tax existed.[623] In the time of the Vikings wounds were well attended to, amputations performed, and wooden legs were not uncommon. “Mention,” says Puschmann, “is also made of the operation called gastroraphy” (or sewing up a wound of the belly or some of its contents);[624] lithotomy was performed successfully. Wodan is the all-pervading creative and formative power who gives shape and beauty, wealth, prosperity, and all highest blessings to men.[625] Eir was the goddess of physicians; Odin was a doctor; Brunhilda was a doctoress. The ancient German nations offered to the gods sacrifices of human food, which they believed they enjoyed. These sacrifices were offered as thanksgivings or to appease their anger. When a famine or a pestilence appeared amongst the people, they concluded that the gods were angry, and they proceeded to propitiate them with gifts.[626] Animal and especially human sacrifices had the most binding and atoning power.[627] The Teutonic elves are good-natured, helpful beings. They fetch goodwives, midwives, to assist she-dwarfs in labour, and have much knowledge of occult healing virtues in plants and stones.[628] But elves sometimes do mischief to men. Their touch and their breath may bring sickness or death on man and beast. Lamed cattle are said in Norway to be bewitched by them, and their avenging hand makes men silly or half-witted.[629] Teutonic peoples have always had great faith in the normal influence of pure water.