[Sidenote: _The_ Judgements _of Exodus xxi., xxii_] Although in part contemporary, the next stage in the development of Israelitish law is represented by the civil, social, and humane decalogues in Exodus xx. 28 to xxiii. 19. The best preserved group is found in xxi.1 to xxii.20, and bears the title _Judgments_, which recalls Hammurabi's title to his code, The _Judgments_ of Righteousness. Like this great Babylonian code, the Hebrew _Judgments_ deal with civil and social cases, and are usually introduced by the formula, _If so and so_, followed by the penalty or decision to be rendered. They are evidently intended primarily for the guidance of judges. The parallels with the code of Hammurabi are many, both in theme, form, and penalty, although there is no conclusive evidence that the Hebrew borrowed directly from the older Babylonian. Undoubtedly many of the striking points of resemblance are due simply to common Semitic ideas and institutions and to the recurrence of similar questions. But on the whole, the Hebrew laws place a higher estimate on life and less on property. They reflect also a simpler type of civilization than the Babylonian. [Sidenote: _Their arrangement and contents_] When three or four obviously later additions have been removed, the _Judgments_ are found to consist of five decalogues, each divided into two pentads which deal with different phases of the same general subject. They are as follows: _First Decalogue: The Rights of Slaves._ First Pentad: Males, Ex. xxi. 2,3a, 3b, 4,5-6. Second Pentad: Females, xxi. 7, 8, 9,10, 11. _Second Decalogue: Assaults._ First Pentad: Capital Offences, xxi. 12, 13,14, 15, 16. Second Pentad: Minor Offences, xxi. 18-19, 20, 21, 26, 27. _Third Decalogue: Laws regarding Domestic Animals._ First Pentad: Injuries by Animals, xxi. 28, 29, 30, 31, 32. Second Pentad: Injuries to Animals, xxi. 33-34, 35, 36; xxii. 1,4. _Fourth Decalogue: Responsibility for Property._ First Pentad: In General, xxii. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Second Pentad: In Cattle, xxii. 10-11, 13, 14, l5a, I5b. _Fifth Decalogue: Social Purity._ First Pentad: Adultery, Deut. xxii. 13-19, 20-21, 22, 23-24, 25-27. Second Pentad: Fornication and Apostasy, Ex. xxii. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. [Sidenote: _Their date_] Many of these laws anticipate the settled agricultural conditions of Palestine. Society, however, is very simple. The decalogue and peatad form also points clearly to an early period, when the laws were transmitted orally. Many of the laws probably came from the days of the wilderness wandering, and therefore go back to the age of Moses, in some cases much earlier, as is shown by close analogies with the code of Hammurabi. Although in their present written form these oral _Judgments_ bear the marks of the Northern Israelitish prophetic writers who have preserved them, the majority, if not all, may with confidence be assigned to the days of David and Solomon. [Sidenote: _The early humane and ceremonial laws_]