No forest can be declared "reserved" or "protected" unless it is owned in whole or in part by the State. It is enough if the trees or some of them are the property of the Government. In order to safeguard all private rights a special forest settlement must be made before a forest can be declared to be "reserved." In the case of a protected forest it is enough if Government is satisfied that the rights of the State and of private persons have been recorded at a land revenue settlement. After deducting income belonging to the year 1909-10 realized in 1910-11, the average income of the two years ending 1911-12 was L81,805 (Rs. 1,227,082) and the average expenditure L50,954 (Rs. 764,309). ~Sources of Income.~--In the mountain forests the chief source of income is the _deodar_, which is valuable both for railway sleepers and as building timber. The blue pine is also of commercial value. _Deodar_, blue pine, and some _chir_ are floated down the rivers to depots in the plains. Firwood is inferior to cedar and pine, and the great fir forests are too remote for profitable working at present. There are fine mountain forests in Chitral, on the Safed Koh, and in Western Waziristan, but these have so far not even been fully explored. The value of the hill forests may be increased by the success which has attended the experimental extraction of turpentine from the resin of the _chir_ pine. The bamboo forests of Kangra are profitable. At present an attempt is being made to acclimatize several species of Eucalyptus in the low hills. The scrub _jangal_ in the plains yields good fuel. As the area is constantly shrinking it is fortunate that the railways have ceased to depend on this source of supply, coal having to a great extent taken the place of wood. To prevent shortage of fuel considerable areas in the tracts commanded by the new canals are being reserved for irrigated forests. A forest of this class covering an area of 37 square miles and irrigated from the Upper Bari Doab Canal has long existed at Changa Manga in the Lahore district. ~Forests in Kashmir.~--The extensive and valuable Kashmir forests are mountain and hill forests, the former, which cover much the larger area yielding, _deodar_, blue pine, and firs, and the latter _chir_ pine. The total area exceeds 2600 square miles. CHAPTER VIII BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS