~Trade.~--In 1911-12 the exports from the Panjab, excluding those by land to Central Asia, Ladakh, and Afghanistan, were valued at Rs. 27,63,21,000 (L18,421,000), of which 61 p.c. went to Karachi and about 10 p.c. to Calcutta and Bombay. Of the total 27 p.c. consisted of wheat, nearly the whole of which was dispatched to Karachi. All other grains and pulses were about equal in value to the wheat. "Gram and other pulses" (18 p.c. of total exports) was the chief item. Raw cotton accounts for 15, and oil-seeds for 10 p.c. The imports amounted in value to Rs. 30,01,28,000 (L20,008,000), little more than one-third being received from Karachi. Cotton piece goods (Foreign 22, Indian 8-1/2 p.c.) make up one-third of the total. The other important figures are sugar 12, and metals 11 p.c. The land trade with Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Ladakh is insignificant, but interesting as furnishing an example of modes of transport which have endured for many centuries, and of the pursuit of gain often under appalling physical difficulties. CHAPTER XVII HISTORY--PRE-MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 500 B.C.--1000 A.D. ~In Hindu period relations of Panjab were with western kingdoms.~--The large tract included in the British province of the Panjab which lies between the Jamna and the Ghagar is, having regard to race, language, and past history, a part of Hindustan. Where "Panjab" is used without qualification in this section the territories west of the Ghagar and south of Kashmir are intended. The true relations of the Panjab and Kashmir during the Hindu period were, except for brief intervals, with Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkistan rather than with the great kingdoms founded in the valley of the Ganges and the Jamna. ~Normal division into petty kingdoms and tribal confederacies.~--The normal state of the Panjab in early times was to be divided into a number of small kingdoms and tribal republics. Their names and the areas which they occupied varied from time to time. Names of kingdoms that have been rescued from oblivion are Gandhara, corresponding to Peshawar and the valley of the Kabul river, Urasa or Hazara, where the name is still preserved in the Orash plain, Taxila, which may have corresponded roughly to the present districts of Rawalpindi and Attock with a small part of Hazara, Abhisara or the low hills of Jammu, Kashmir, and Trigartta, with its capital Jalandhara, which occupied most of the Jalandhar division north of the Sutlej and the states of Chamba, Suket, and Mandi. The historians of Alexander's campaigns introduce us also to the kingdoms of the elder Poros on both banks of the Jhelam, of the younger Poros east of the Chenab, and of Sophytes (Saubhuti) in the neighbourhood of the Salt Range. We meet also with tribal confederacies, such as in Alexander's time those of the Kathaioi on the upper, and of the Malloi on the lower, Ravi.