The tumultuous forms of lofty mountains ‘tossed up’ as they seem to be when viewed from some commanding height, are, in by far the greater number of examples yet studied, undoubtedly the result of the slow erosion of the valleys between them; but it should not be forgotten that regions of very recent disturbances--as the earth counts time--may possess strong inequalities directly due to deformation. The tilted lava blocks of Oregon have already been mentioned. The bold forms of the St. Elias Alps, also described by Russell, are regarded by him as chiefly produced by the tilting of huge crustal blocks on which erosion has as yet done relatively little work. An altogether exceptional case is described by Dutton, who says that on the margin of one of the “high plateaus of Utah a huge block seems to have cracked off and rolled over, the beds opening with a V and forming a valley of grand dimensions.” ‘Rift valleys,’ or trough-like depressions produced by the down-faulting of long, narrow, crustal blocks with respect to the bordering masses, are occasionally found, as in eastern Africa, where the ‘Great Rift valley’ has been described by Gregory. Trough-like depressions of similar origin, but much more affected by the degradation of their borders and the aggradation of their floors, are known to European geographers in the valleys of the Saône and of the middle Rhine. But no rift valley, no depression between the tilted lava blocks, resembles the branching valleys that are produced by the erosive action of running water. Thus far, while much attention had been given to the work of rivers, little or no attention had been given to the arrangement of their courses. It seems to have been tacitly assumed that the courses of all streams were consequent upon the slope of the initial land surface. The explicit recognition of this origin, indicated by the provision of a special name, ‘consequent streams,’ was an important step in advance due to our western geologists. The discovery soon followed that rivers have held their courses through mountain ridges that slowly rose across their path; the rivers, concentrating the drainage of a large headwater region upon a narrow line, cut down their channels as the land was raised. This idea first came into prominence through Powell’s report on the Colorado River of the West (1875), in which he gave the name, ‘antecedent,’ to rivers of this class. He believed that the Green river, in its passage through the Uinta mountains, was to be explained as an antecedent stream. Much doubt has, however, been thrown upon this interpretation. Other accounts of antecedent rivers have been published, and to-day the Green is not so safe a type of antecedence as the Rhine below Bingen, the Meuse in the Ardennes, or several of the Himalayan rivers in the gorges that they have cut through the youngest marginal ridges of the range.