The Bandiera insurrection. Its results.--Career of Cesare Balbo, "Le Speranze d'Italia."--Vincenzo Gioberti. "Il Primato degli Italiani."--The insurrection of Rimini. "Ultimi casi di Romagna."--The risings in Galicia.--History of Cracow since 1815.--Causes of the failure of the Galician movement.--The seizure of Cracow. Palmerston's utterances thereon.--Change in Charles Albert's position.--The Ticino treaties.--Mistake of Solaro della Margherita.--"Long live the King of Italy!"--D'Azeglio's policy.--Aurelio Saffi.--Death of Gregory XVI.--State of Roman Government.--Parties in the Conclave.--Election of Pius IX.--His character and career.--The amnesty. Its effect.--Ciceruacchio. His work.--The Congress at Genoa.--Charles Lucien Bonaparte.--Death of Confalonieri.--State of Milan.--Pio Nono's reforms.--The clerical conspiracy.--The occupation of Ferrara. Its effect on Italian feeling.--State of Tuscany.--The Duke of Lucca.--Absorption of Lucca in Tuscany.--The struggle with Modena.--The massacre of Fivizzano.--Occupation of Parma and Modena by Austria.--State of Switzerland.--Position of Bern and Zurich.--The Concordat of Seven.--The refugee question in 1838.--The Aargau monasteries.--The Sonderbund.--The Jesuit question.--Metternich's feelings, real and pretended.--Palmerston's attitude.--Relations between Metternich and Guizot.--The decision of the Swiss Diet.--The Sonderbund war.--Effect of the Federal victory.--The Schleswig-Holstein question.--The official view and the popular view.--Metternich's way out of the difficulty.--Effect of the movement on Germany and Prussia.--State of Europe at outbreak of Sicilian insurrection. The divisions of opinion, which had been hindering progress in Hungary, had, in the meantime, been growing less prominent in Italy; so that the more active political leaders in the latter country were, for a time at least, aiming at a common programme. Yet this point had only been reached after much suffering and failure. Conspiracies with various objects had been rife in Italy, especially in the Papal States; but, though some passing attention was attracted by the cruelties exercised in their suppression, these risings had left apparently little mark on the country. But an insurrection took place in 1844 which proved a turning-point in Italian politics. The character and circumstances of the leaders excited a sympathy which impressed their memories on the hearts of their countrymen; while the failure of the rising led to a change in the general tactics of the Italian Liberals.