Now such public meetings or councils we find in existence among the Germans from their very first appearance in history. The graphic pen of Tacitus has left us a lively description of their nature and powers, and in some degree their forms of business. He says[474],—“In matters of minor import, the chiefs take counsel together; in weightier affairs, the whole body of the state: but in such wise, that the chiefs have the power of discussing and recommending even those measures, which the will of the people ultimately decides. They meet, except some sudden and fortuitous event occur, on fixed days, either at new or full moon.... This inconvenience arises from their liberty, that they do not assemble at once, or at the time for which they are summoned, but a second or even a third day is wasted by the delay of those who are to meet. They sit down, in arms, just as it suits the convenience of the crowd. Silence is enjoined by the priests, who, on these occasions, have even the power of coercion. Then the king, or the prince, or any one, whom his age, nobility, his honours won in war or his eloquence may authorise to speak, is listened to, more through the influence of persuasion than the power of command. If his opinion do not please them, they reject it with murmurs: if it do, they dash their lances together. The most honourable form of assent is adoption by clashing of arms. It is lawful also to bring accusations, and prosecute capitally before the council. The punishment varies with the crime. Traitors and deserters they hang on trees; cowards, the unwarlike, and infamous of body they bury alive in mud and marsh, with a hurdle cast over them: the difference of the penalty has this intention as it were, that crimes should be made public, but infamous vices hidden, while being punished.... In the same councils also, princes are elected, to give law in the shires and villages. Each has a hundred comrades from among the people, both to advise him and add to his authority. They transact no business either of a public or private nature, without their weapons. But it is not the custom for any one to begin wearing them, before the state has approved of him as likely to be an efficient citizen. Then, in the public meeting itself, either one of the chiefs, or his father or a kinsman, decorates the youth with a shield and javelin. This is their _Toga_; this is the first dignity of their youth: before this they appear part of a household,—after it, of a state.” ----- Footnote 474: Germ. xi. xii. xiii. -----