2. _Arbitration._--This first appeared in 1351, when Zurich joined the League. It became more common as the number of the confederates increased, and was the method employed when friendly remonstrance failed, and when war was not declared. The arrangement as to the place of meeting, the number and the method of choosing the arbitrators, and other details, varied according to the stipulations contained in the various treaties by which each Canton had been admitted into the Confederation. The number of arbitrators was usually fixed at two for each party, and, in case of disagreement, they selected an impartial foreman or umpire; “the question of the choice of the foreman,” says a contemporary historian, “was unquestionably the main point in the whole system of the Courts of Arbitration, for, generally, he was the only real and impartial judge.” This method was substantially the only one employed from 1351 to 1798. During the existence of the Helvetic Republic, there was established a Central Judiciary along with a Central Executive and Legislature. It consisted of a member and an assistant, nominated by each Canton, one-fourth being renewed annually. It had original jurisdiction over the members of the executive and of the legislature, and in criminal cases involving the penalty of death or of imprisonment and banishment. It acted as a Court of Appeals in civil matters, when the decisions of the inferior courts were invalid by reason of want of jurisdiction, whether through informality or violation of the constitution. This court practically subsisted under Napoleon’s Act of Mediation, set up in 1803. With the partial restoration of things in 1815 to the _status quo ante_ 1798, came naturally the restoration of the arbitration system, with reference to which the most elaborate regulations were laid down in the Federal Pact. This codification legally subsisted till 1848. A revision was attempted in 1832, when, after the Paris Revolution of 1830, more liberal ideas began to assert themselves in Switzerland, but it failed through the opposition of the Conservatives. The Reformers, however, were successful in 1848, and by the constitution adopted that year, a Federal Court was created, with jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases, and also a limited jurisdiction in cases where rights guaranteed by the constitution were alleged to have been infringed; _provided_ that the Federal Legislature referred such cases to it. The court consisted of eleven judges and eleven substitutes, elected by the Federal Assembly for a term of three years. The president and vice-president of the court were appointed by the same body annually. Another attempt at revision was made in 1872, by which the functions of the court as an interpreter and upholder of rights guaranteed by the federal and cantonal constitutions would be very much extended, but it was rejected. There was an appeal on questions of public law to the