When the philosopher is confronted with his rival--science, for instance, he becomes a sceptic; then he appropriates a _form of knowledge_ which he denies to the man of science; he goes hand in hand with the priest so that he may not be suspected of atheism or materialism; he considers an attack made upon himself as an attack upon morals, religion, virtue, and order--he knows how to bring his opponents into ill repute by calling them "seducers" and "underminers": then he marches shoulder to shoulder with power. The philosopher at war with other philosophers:--he does his best to compel them to appear like anarchists, disbelievers, opponents of authority. In short, when he fights, he fights exactly like a priest and like the priesthood. 3. THE TRUTHS AND ERRORS OF PHILOSOPHERS. 448. Philosophy defined by Kant: "_The science of the limitations of reason_"!! 449. According to Aristotle, Philosophy is the art of discovering truth. On the other hand, the Epicurians, who availed themselves of Aristotle's _sensual_ theory of knowledge, retorted in ironical opposition to the search for truth: "Philosophy is the art of _Life._" 450. _The three great naïvetés:--_ Knowledge as a means of happiness (as if ...); Knowledge as a means to virtue (as if ...); Knowledge as a means to the "denial of Life"--inasmuch as it leads to disappointment--(as if ...). 451. As if there were a "truth" which one could by some means approach! 452. Error and ignorance are fatal.--The assumption that _truth has been found_ and that ignorance and error are at an end, constitutes one of the most seductive thoughts in the world. Granted that it be generally accepted, it paralyses the will to test, to investigate, to be cautious, and to gather experience: it may even be regarded as criminal--that is to say, as a _doubt_ concerning truth.... "Truth" is therefore more fatal than error and ignorance, because it paralyses the forces which lead to enlightenment and knowledge. The passion for _idleness_ now stands up for "truth" ("Thought is pain and misery!"), as also do order, rule, the joy of possession, the pride of wisdom--in fact, _vanity._--it is easier to _obey_ than to _examine_; it is more gratifying to think "I possess the truth," than to see only darkness in all directions; ... but, above all, it is reassuring, it lends confidence, and alleviates life--it "improves" the character inasmuch as it _reduces mistrust._" Spiritual peace," "a quiet conscience"--these things are inventions which are only possible provided "_Truth be found._"--"By their fruits ye shall know them." ... "Truth" is the truth because it makes men _better...._ The process goes on: all goodness and all success is placed to the credit of "truth." This is the _proof by success_: the happiness, contentment, and the welfare of a community or of an individual, are now understood to be the _result of the belief in morality_.... Conversely: _failure_ is ascribed to a _lack_ of faith.