There are several minor processes or methods of deriving judgments from each other, or of making immediate inferences, but the above will give the student a very fair idea of the minor or more complete methods. _Exercise_: The following will give the student good practice and exercise in the methods of Conversion. It affords a valuable mental drill, and tends to develop the logical faculties, particularly that of Judgment. The student should _convert_ the following propositions, according to the rules and examples given in this chapter: 1. All men are reasoning beings. 2. Some men are blacksmiths. 3. No men are quadrupeds. 4. Some birds are sparrows. 5. Some horses are vicious. 6. No brute is rational. 7. Some men are not sane. 8. All biscuit is bread. 9. Some bread is biscuit. 10. Not all bread is biscuit. CHAPTER XIII. REASONING In the preceding chapters we have seen that in the group of mental processes involved in the general process of Understanding, there are several stages or steps, three of which we have considered in turn, namely: (1) Abstraction; (2) Generalization or Conception; (3) Judgment. The _fourth_ step, or stage, and the one which we are now about to consider, is that called Reasoning. _Reasoning_ is that faculty of the mind whereby we compare two Judgments, one with the other, and from which comparison we are enabled to form a third judgment. It is a form of indirect or mediate comparison, whereas, the ordinary Judgment is a form of immediate or direct comparison. As, when we form a Judgment, we compare two concepts and decide upon their agreement or difference; so in Reasoning we compare two Judgments and from the comparison we draw or produce a new Judgment. Thus, we may reason that the particular dog "Carlo" is an animal, by the following process: (1) _All_ dogs are animals; (2) Carlo is a dog; therefore, (3) Carlo is an animal. Or, in the same way, we may reason that a whale is not a fish, as follows: (1) _All_ fish are cold-blooded animals; (2) A whale is _not_ a cold-blooded animal; therefore, (3) A whale is _not_ a fish. In the above processes it will be seen that the third and final Judgment is derived from a comparison of the first two Judgments. Brooks states the process as follows: "Looking at the process more closely, it will be seen that in inference in Reasoning involves a comparison of relations. We infer the relation of two objects from their relation to a third object. We must thus grasp in the mind two relations and from the comparison of these two relations we infer a third relation. The two relations from which we infer a third, are judgments; hence, Reasoning may also be defined as the process of deriving one judgment from two other judgments. We compare the two given judgments and from this comparison derive the third judgment. This constitutes a single step in Reasoning, and an argument so expressed is called a _Syllogism_."