Now, Memmius, you will easily of yourself Understand in what way were first discovered The properties of iron. Man’s earliest weapons Were hands nails teeth and stones, and boughs torn off From forest trees, and flame and fire, as each Became known. Afterwards the force of iron And copper was discovered. And the use Of copper was known earlier than of iron, Since it was easier to be worked, and found More copiously. With copper they would till The soil of earth, with copper they stirred up The waves of war, and dealt wide-gaping wounds, And seized on lands and cattle: for all else, Being naked and unarmed, would yield to those Who carried weapons. Then by slow degrees The sword of iron made progress, while the type Of the copper sickle came to be despised. With iron they began to cleave the soil, And through its use wavering war’s conflicts Were rendered equal. Earlier was the custom Of mounting armed upon a horse’s back And guiding it with reins, and dealing blows With the right arm, long before men dared tempt The risks of battle in the two-horsed car. And they would learn the art to yoke two steeds Earlier than to yoke four, or to mount armed Upon scythed chariots. Next the Poeni taught The uncouth Lucanian kine,[H] with towered backs And snake-like hands, to endure the wounds of war, And rout great troops of martial chivalry. Thus miserable discord brought to birth One thing after another, to appal Mankind’s embattled nations, every day Making addition to war’s frightfulness.