Evidence of acts, including other crimes not only of the defendants but of others, is permissible and most often offered to show knowledge, intent or design. They are also relevant upon the issue of motive. Because of the nature of the crimes charged in this indictment, each of the foregoing, knowledge, intent, or design and motive, is an essential ultimate element or ingredient of those crimes. Therefore, the rules which authorize the introduction of such proof are of concern to this Court. Before treating the subject affirmatively, we shall prepare the way by eliminating the supposed objection of unfair surprise. We offer the following quote: “Of the other objections (other than undue prejudice) from the point of view of that auxiliary policy which creates the character rule, the objection of unfair surprise is the only one that could be supposed to be here applicable. But it has never been treated by the courts as of consequence. * * * Evidence tending to show, not the defendant’s entire career, but his specific knowledge, motive, design, and the other immediate matters leading up to and succeeding the crime, is of a class always to be anticipated and is in such given instance rarely a surprise; moreover, the kernel of the objection of unfair surprise, namely, the impossibility of exposing fabricated evidence, is wanting where the evidence deals with matters so closely connected with a crime as design, motive, and the like.”[56] The above quote referred to the further objection of undue prejudice. That objection does not arise here. This is a trial by the court--by judges. It is a trial by judges who by training and character rely only upon objective standards in determining guilt or innocence. The rule was never considered in America as a necessary protection to a defendant in trials by court. In fact, the very contrast between the system and standards of judicial conduct by which these defendants are being tried and the subjective personality yard sticks which they, particularly the judicial defendants, will be proved to have acted under and used, it is to be hoped, will have some effect in serving the declared purpose of Potsdam, “to prepare for the eventual reconstruction of a German political life on a democratic basis * * *.” In treating the subject under discussion, we must refrain, because of time limitation, from presenting Wigmore’s excellent philosophical discussion of the basic principles which govern the proof of knowledge, intent, and design. Therefore we limit ourselves, from necessity, to an exposition of those statements which are applicable to the crime which most, if not all, of these defendants have committed--murder. We shall offer the type of evidence under discussion, first under the knowledge principle: