questions are either for a Russian or a Ukrainian fascism. There is no third course.” Confronted with such attacks on his novels and publicistic works, Khvylovy shot himself on May 13, 1933, and he was only one of a large number that passed from the literary scene. Serhey Yefremiv, the literary historian, was liquidated as a writer. Prof. Mikhail Hrushevsky, the historian and former President of the Ukrainian National Republic, died in exile. Many others were shot or committed suicide because the Marxists and the Communists who had hoped for the development of some independent intellectual physiognomy within Soviet Ukraine were regarded as equally hostile to the state as were the bourgeois and the anti-Marxians. The language was allowed to exist. No one ventured to repeat the words of Valuyev in the sixties that there never was, is not, and never will be a Ukrainian language. It was clear, however, that there never was, is not, and never will be a Ukrainian culture distinct from the general Soviet culture within the Soviet Union. The measures taken in the twentieth century go further than any in the nineteenth. At that time supervision and censorship were primarily of the external form. Now they are of the internal content. The modern ideological state cannot tolerate the diversity, the privileges that were granted by the old fashioned despots, no matter how cruel and tyrannical they were. Everything must be standardized, must be run strictly according to pattern, and most of the younger Ukrainian authors in Eastern Ukraine have learned it to their cost and have been silenced or have submitted. The Second World War has swept the entire area into its vortex. The Ukrainians of all groups and classes in both sections of the Ukrainian lands have learned that the Nazis are but carrying out on a broader and more terrible scale the same policy that the Germans did in 1918, the using of Ukraine as a mere granary, and that they have no more intention than in the past of allowing any human rights or liberties to the Ukrainian population. Fire and sword, famine and disease are destroying the population as they did twenty-five years ago. Yet that period was followed by the brief outburst of the national spirit that accompanied the brief moment of independence. Then amid the ruined conditions of the land there suddenly appeared, poets, prose writers, scholars, men of every intellectual calling. They left their imprint upon Ukrainian culture and the events of the past years have not been able to destroy all that they accomplished. Ukrainian literature which under adversity has developed so well during the past century and a half cannot have been brought to an untimely end. Its revival depends upon victory and the triumph of the human spirit over regimentation. When that moment comes, Ukrainian literature will take its next step and march hand in hand with the other great literatures of the world.