We annually import considerable quantities of copal from the Spanish colonies in America, in irregular masses, some of which are transparent, of yellowish or brown colour, and others are whitish and semi-transparent. When copal is dissolved in any volatile liquid, and thinly spread upon wood, metal, or any other firm substance, so that the liquid may evaporate, the copal remains perfectly transparent; and forms one of the most beautiful and perfect varnishes that can be imagined. The varnish thus formed has the name of _copal varnish_, and is said to have been first discovered in France. One mode of preparing it is by melting the copal with an equal quantity of linseed oil (97); another, by mixture with oil of turpentine; and a third, by mixture with alcohol or spirit of wine. The particular processes are described in the fourth volume of Dr. Thomson's System of Chemistry, fifth edition; but they are too long and intricate for insertion here. Copal is the varnish which is chiefly used in the japanning of snuff-boxes, tea-boards, and other similar articles. TRIGYNIA. 96. _The COMMON ELDER_ (Sambucus nigra) _is a wild English shrub, distinguishable by its winged leaves, with serrated and somewhat oval leaflets, its clusters of small white flowers divided into five principal branches, and the small black or purple berries by which these are succeeded._ The uses of the elder are more numerous than those of most other shrubs. There is scarcely any part of this shrub which has not been advantageously employed in some way or other. The _wood_ is yellow, and, in old trees, becomes so hard that it will take a polish almost as bright as that of box (232); and, indeed, it is often used as a substitute for box-wood. Its toughness also is such that it is made into skewers for butchers, tops for fishing rods, and needles for the weaving of nets. It is likewise employed by turners.