=Knaurs.=--On certain trees, such as the oak, the hornbeam, some species of _Crataegus_, &c., hard woody lumps may occasionally be seen projecting, varying greatly in size, from that of a pea to that of a cocoa-nut. They are covered with bark, and consist in the interior of very hard layers of wood disposed irregularly, so as to form objects of beauty for cabinet-makers' purposes. From the frequent presence of small atrophied leaf-buds on their surface, it would seem as if the structures in question were shortened branches, in which the woody layers had become inordinately developed, as if by compensation for the curtailment in length.[488] The cause of their formation is not known, but it has been ascertained that they are not due to insect agency. Knaurs may occasionally be used for purposes of propagation, as in the case of the "uovoli of the olive" and the "burrs" that are formed on some varieties of apple, from which both roots and leaf-shoots are produced in abundance. A distinction must be drawn between those instances in which the swelling is solid throughout from the excessive formation of cellular tissue, and those wherein it is hollow from the more rapid growth of the outer as contrasted with the inner portions. These latter cases might be classed under the head of distension. [Illustration: FIG. 201.--Formation of tubers or hypertrophied buds in the axils of leaves in the potato.] =Enlargement of the buds= may be seen in the case of bulbs and tubers. Occasionally these organs are developed in the axils of leaves, when their nature becomes apparent. A swollen bud or bulbil in this situation is not uncommon in some cultivated tulips and lilies. The presence of small tubers in the axils of the leaves in the potato, as shown in fig. 201, is also not unfrequent. [Illustration: FIG. 202.--Inflorescence of ash (_Fraxinus_), with hypertrophied pedicels, flowers absent.] =Enlargement of the flower-stalk.=--The cauliflower and broccoli afford familiar illustrations of hypertrophy of the flower-stalk, accompanied by a corresponding defective development of the flowers. In the case of the ash the terminal pedicels occasionally become swollen and distorted, while the flowers are completely deficient, as shown in the adjacent cut (fig. 202). In grapes a similar condition may occasionally be met with in which the terminal pedicels become greatly swollen and fused into a solid mass. It would seem probable that this change is due to insect puncture, or to the effect of fungus growth at an early stage of development, but as to this point there is at present no evidence.[489] [Illustration: FIG. 203.--Monstrous pear, showing extension and ramification of the succulent floral axis. The bases of the sepals are also succulent.]